Situational Crime Prevention Strategies - 2031 Words

Situational crime prevention in some crimes is more successful than that of developmental. Situational Crime prevention takes an approach that the victim is responsible for implementing measures to protect themselves whilst developmental needs programs to be undergone by the offender. The two prevention strategies will be discussed in relation to burglary. Ronald V Clarke originally developed the idea of situational crime prevention in the 1980’s (Brantingham Brantingham 2005). This particular crime prevention theory addresses techniques that increase the effort required to commit the crime, increase the risks involved with committing the crime, reducing the reward gained by the offender after committing the crime, reducing the†¦show more content†¦Routine activity theory believes crime is committed when there is a motivated offender, a suitable target and the absence of a capable guardian, and prevention happens when one of those elements are addressed (Morgan, Boxall, Linderman Anderson 2012). Crime pattern theory focuses on the belief that offenders are opportunistic and they encounter opportunities for crime in the process of their everyday lives (Morgan, Boxall, Linderman Anderson 2012). Finally, rational choice focuses on the theory that the offender weighs up risk and rewards with offending (Morgan, Boxall, Li nderman Anderson 2012). All three theories are considered when creating and implementing situational crime prevention strategies. There are considerable amounts of evidence that situational crime prevention is an effective measure in reducing crime in Australia (Morgan, Boxall, Linderman Anderson 2012). Developmental crime prevention however, focuses on the social backgrounds of offenders. This strategy of crime prevention aims to do something about crime in the early stages therefore it is obvious that the strategy is mostly aimed at children (Homel 2005). In developmental crime prevention it focuses on the developmental pathways of a persons life containing transition points when intervention can prove to be most effective (Homel 2005). TheShow MoreRelatedApproaches to Crime Prevention Essay1036 Words   |  5 PagesFor Crime Prevention Jamal Sanchez Bush Crime Prevention CJ212 June 21, 2011 Introduction Crime prevention has influenced by so many fields like sociology, psychology, criminology, urban planning and design, health care, education, community development, economics social work, among the others. This paper focuses on the dominant approaches to crime prevention which is currently used by law enforcement, courts, and corrections. The dominant approaches to crime preventionRead MoreUsing Material from Item a and Elsewhere, Assess Sociological Views of Crime Reduction Strategies.841 Words   |  4 Pagesassess sociological views of crime reduction strategies. (21 marks). There are numerous different types of strategies for crime reduction. These include crime prevention tactics which are suitable for whole societies, and also forms of punishment which are suitable for individuals. Crime prevention strategies include situational crime prevention, environmental crime prevention, and social and community crime prevention. Ron Clark describes situational crime prevention as ‘a pre-emptive approach thatRead MoreRoutine Activity And Situational Crime Prevention Theory1082 Words   |  5 Pagestheory states that for a crime to be committed, three important factors need to be present including: a motivated offender, an accessible target, and the absence of a capable guardian against a violation. Marcus Felson and Lawrence E. Cohen introduced the routine activity theory in 1979, where they believed that an individual who has these three characteristics gives them a greater possibility of committing a crime. Moreover, situational crime prevention is known as strategies of ways for preventingRead MoreCrime Prevention Is A Rather Elastic Term1620 Words   |  7 Pages‘Crime prevention’ is an extremely broad term that intends to change and shape behaviour or events in order to reduce the possibility or probability of crime. â€Å"Crime prevention is a rather elastic term, which at its broa dest encompasses any activity intended to reduce the frequency of events defined as crimes by the criminal law† (Hough et al, 1980 cited in Doherty, 2005, p.126). Thus is can be hard to completely define crime prevention in one singular definition, as there are many areas that canRead MoreCrime Is A Serious Problem1487 Words   |  6 PagesPolicing and fighting crime are two terms often associated together. Crime is a serious problem in cities and a lot of people are affected by it. Victims, criminals and their families are touched by the outcomes of crime. Crime has increased over the years and is continuing to do so. The city of Memphis has experienced a great increase of crime. Memphis Police have developed initiatives to reduce crime, using federally funded programs. Unfortunately, crime problems such as theft, assaults and homicideRead MoreImpact of Developmental Theories on Crime Prevention Program Implementation675 Words   |  3 PagesDevelopmental Theories Impact on Crime Prevention Program Implementation Objective The objective of this study is to examine how developmental theories impact implementation of Crime Prevention Programs. Welsh and Farrington (2010) note that crime prevention holds different meanings for different people and the programs and policies focused on crime prevention includes the arrest by police who are coping with problems associated with gangs and a court disposal of the case, secure correctional facilityRead MoreThe Classical School Of Thought889 Words   |  4 Pagesthat highlighted criminality as a rational choice decided by a person’s own free will. The idea of rational choice led to the development of the Classical school of thought, which sought to deter and prevent crime by making the fear of punishment worse than the gratification attained from crime. However, while free will and rational choice sought to explain criminality, other theorists began to consider that some individuals are biologically predisposed to criminal behavior. The development of theRead MoreCriminality and Victimization Are Affected by Globalization1829 Words   |  7 Pagespolicies, and in promoting, coordinating and supporting crime prevention. On the other hand, personnel with different skills and roles in crime prevention, whether police officers, judges and prosecutors, probation officers, social workers, health service, researchers, civil society organizations and communities, all play an important role in crime prevention project development and implementation (Shaw, et al, 2010, p.xx). Risk of crime At the global level, countries are influenced by: majorRead MoreEssay on Approaches to crime prevention1666 Words   |  7 Pages Approaches to crime prevention have emerged over time and are demonstrated in different solutions, practices, and policies executed by law enforcement, courts, corrections, family, and community. Some of the dominant approaches to crime prevention currently used by law enforcement, courts, corrections, family, and community are: situational crime prevention, crime prevention through social development, crime prevention through environmental design, community crime prevention, reduction of recidivismRead MoreCrime And Crime : Criminology And Criminology1211 Words   |  5 Pages Crime choice theory, often referred to as environmental criminology or ecological criminology, is a branch of criminology that was supposedly started by the classical school’s Cesare Beccaria. As with many theories, it has evolved with time, but the basics of it have stayed much the same throughout time. Crime choice theory can relate through other theories such as; routine activity theory, environm ental criminology, situational crime prevention and crime prevention through environmental design

Christianity And Its Impact On The World And The United...

In the last few hundred years there have been three new views on Christianity to take root in society and impact the world and they were; Neo-Orthodox, Evangelism and Liberalism. These three had quite the impact of the faith throughout Europe and the United States. The three had varying ideals, but it some case overlapped. However, Neo-Orthodoxy seems to be the most effective when communicating with Scripture. Liberalism will be the first to be covered in this paper, as well as the most radical in some aspects. Liberals took a new approach to what they viewed has an out of date religion, and changed the authority of the Bible and considered other sources of authority to help adapt Christianity into the new modern thinking of their time. â€Å"Reason, culture, experiences and science would all be employed in challenge to the classical authority of revelation.†(Bingham) The father of the Liberalist movement was the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher. Schleiermache r made an effort to separate religion from theology. To him religion wasn’t just beliefs or ethics, but was based in knowledge and action, theology is then the reflection of said actions. Religion ending up being nothing more than just feelings and experiences and each person’s own experiences turn into their revelations. This also made the teachings of the Scriptures important. His view on Jesus was that he was just a good teacher that’s job was to awaken people to God so they can work through them,Show MoreRelatedRomes Contribution to Todays Society Essay934 Words   |  4 Pagessingle most important contribution to modern society was Romes adoption of Christianity. Christianity, having its foundational roots in Judaism, was born in the midst of the Roman era. It has shaped todays society on many different levels with varying degrees of legal, political and sociological implications. 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All over the world, Christianity seems to be growing more and more steadily. It also seems that in some cases, it actually boosts an economy positively. It was stated in â€Å"The Telegraph† that by the year 2030 China will become the worlds most â€Å"Christian Nation.† Even though the United States i s currently the largest Christian nation in the world, it will soon become second to China. Yes so called communistRead MoreReligion : The United States And The European Union1648 Words   |  7 Pagesinfluences virtually every aspect of our lives and governs both our individual and collective life (Hajizadeh, 2013). Religion plays an integral role in every country whether it is a third-world country, such as some African or Middle Eastern countries, or industrialized capitalist countries like the United States and the European Union. Over the past few decades many global events have brought religion’s growing influence over society, especially its role in affecting politics (Hajizadeh, 2013). TheRead MoreEssay on Analysis of Narrative Of The Life Of Frederick Douglass1287 Words   |  6 Pageswas a social reformer, statesman, orator and writer in the United States. Douglass believed in the equality of every individual of different races, gender or immigrants. In this book, Douglass narrated the life of a slave in the United States into finer details. This paper will give a description of life a slave in the United States was living, as narrated through the experiences of Fredrick Douglass. Life of a slave in the United States The narrative begins by informing the readers that slavesRead MoreA Short Note On The Edict Of Milan873 Words   |  4 Pages After the fascinating discoveries from Marco Polo, another event that was significant throughout Western Civilization is the Edict of Milan. 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Islam wasRead MoreAnalysis Of Peter Berger s The Desecularization Of The World Resurgent Religion1401 Words   |  6 PagesPeter Berger in The Desecularization of the World Resurgent Religion argues against modernization theory which states as the world modernizes religiosity decreases. Berger contends in the face of empirical evidence secularization theory is untenable. Berger argues it is irresponsible to label the world as secular in the midst of empirical evidence. Evidence is presented that suggests the world is no less religious than other times in history with notable exceptions primarily in European regionsRead MoreHmong Culture : Influences On A European American Society1488 Words   |  6 PagesDevelopment finds that the Hmong primarily lived in Laos, Vietnam, and Thailand. They had a great impact in helping western forces during the Vietnam War, and wars in Laos in efforts to end Communism. 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Political and Religious Differences as Grounds for Divorce free essay sample

The defendant answered with a cross complaint requesting that he be awarded the divorce and custody of a minor child. The plaintiffs complaint was dismissed and the counter claim allowed. The Supreme Court held that the fact the wife was a member of the communist party at the time of her marriage and refused to continue in the religious beliefs of her birth did not entitle the husband to a divorce. The decree was reversed and remanded. The court said: Neither a religious belief (or the lack of such belief) nor a political or social opinion is of itself grounds for divorce in this jurisdiction. In arriving at this conclusion the court pointed out that the only provision of the statute under which the counter complaint might possibly lie was that which provided Cruel treatment of either party by the other, or personal indignities rendering life burdensome 2 are grounds for divorce. Thus, the court was of the opinion that divergent political opinions, per se, do not constitute the essential elements of either (1) cruel treatment, or (2) personal indignities. 3 * 2nd year law student, Duke University; A. B. Colgate, 1950. 31 P. 2d 607 (Wash. 1951). See case note, 14 GA. B. J. 238 (Nov. 1951). 2 LAws OF WASH. , 1949, c. 215, Â §2, p. 698, REM. Supp. 1949 Â §997-2. 3 Cf. New York Herald Tribune, March 8, 1952, p. 1. A court in Potsdam, East Germany, has ruled a man may divorce his wife for not being sufficiently Marxist, even though he may have admitted adultery. . .. The wifes politically weak conduct drove him to turn away from her, it said. POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS DIFFERENCES Certain questions immediately arise from an opinion of this sort. Is the basis of the courts opinion the judicial determination that the essential elements of what constitutes cruel treatment do not encompass the incompatibility that results because of political disparity, so that other courts with different opinions might arrive at a different conclusion? Do the divorce statutes conceive of political differences as grounds for divorce? If they do, are there any policy factors that would preclude their inclusion into divorce regulation? The law is scant with opinions where the issue of political differences have been raised in divorce proceedings. Besides the Donaldson case, one other case raised the subject of political differences as grounds for divorce. That was Braun 4 v. Brauni and likewise was decided in the state of Washington. The court held: The trial court apparently and properly disregarded the charges that the appellant was a communist, which certainly would not constitute cruelty per se and be grounds for divorce. 5 The decisions in these two cases seem to be correct by the application of the process of applying rules developed in analogous situations. It is surprising, considering the frenzy with which some hold political convictions, that the question has not been raised previously, and in more detail. Reasonable research indicates that these two cases consist of the law on this aspect of the topic. But, there has developed in our law the principle that religious differences between spouses are not, per se, grounds for divorce. And the close analogy between political differences and religious differences can clearly be seen. The desire for a divorce would stem from incompatibility due to a state of mind of one of the spouses which the other finds impossible to bear. There seems to be no perceptible difference between the basis for divorce on the grounds of ones religious beliefs and because of ones political convictions. 1 31 Wash. 2d 468, 197 P. 2d 442, 443 (1948). r It is not clear from this case to what extent the issue of communism was pressed on the court. This appears to be a minor point in the de. cision. But the language is clear and seems to be more than dictum. DUKE BAR JOURNAL As a general proposition, divorce may be granted for three distinct reasons. The first because of fault between parties. An example would be the ephemeral concept mental cruelty. 0 The second ground would be misfortune. E. g. , impotency. 7 And thirdly, some states allow for separation on the basis of agreement between parties. As has previously been pointed out, the Washington court was of the opinion that the only relevant part of the statute under which political differences could be treated as possible grounds for divorce was that relating to mental cruelty . Therefore, it should be kept in mind that any basis for allowing divorce because of religious or political differences would be on the grounds of mental cruelty, or a corollary thereof. Thus, in considering the total question, it is important to keep constantly in mind the statutory provisions and the scope accorded them by the judiciary, particularly to mental cruelty. Since the Donaldson case held that political differences do not constitute the requisite grounds for divorce, it would be wise to inquire to what extent the courts have held that religious differences were sufficient grounds; and if they are grounds, what restrictions or limitations have been placed thereon. The dictum in Haymond v. HaymondO constitutes a good beginning. In view of the constitutional provision securing to all men the right to worship almighty God according to the dictates of their own conscience and asserting that no human authority ought in any case whatever to control or interfere with the rights of conscience in matters of religion, we do not think that questions as to the doctrines or practices of the Sanctificationists ought to have been permitted to enter to any extent into the trial If her conduct as a wife was such as to furnish her husband grounds for divorce, the acts themselves would be the only proper subjects of investigation, without any regardto the religious convictions that led to them. (Emphasis added) See 27 C. 3. S. , Divorce, Â §24, et seq. , p. 543. See 27 C. S. S. , Divorce, Â §19, p. 540. See 27 C. 3. S. , Divorce, Â §42, p. 581. Haymond v. Haymond, 74 Tex. 414, 12 S. W. 90 (1889). POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS DIFFERENCES The broad doctrine announced in this case (though not original thereto) seems to set the pattern for the courts application of religious differences as grounds for divorce. Smith v. Smith0 serves as an illustration. Here the wife became a member of the sect known as Jehovahs Witnesses, and zealously carried out her faith to the extent of disrupting and destroying the family life. Such actions were held to constitute cruel treatment towards the husband, and the court affirmed a judgment granting a divorce to the husband with custody of the two minor children. The actions of the wife amounted to cruelty, and the naked facts of religious incompatibility was not the moving cause for the divorce. Comparable is Johnson v. Johnson, 2 where the wife had become a Seventh Day Adventist and also joined a sect known as the Holiness People. As a result of her new found beliefs, she refused to have sexual intercourse with her husband until she received word from God that the husband likewise had become converted. 3 She also neglected the household duties, disrupted the family schedule, and was no longer the efficient housewife and mother she had been before; and that it appears all these consequences directly resulted from her active participation and belief in her religion. A divorce was not granted, even under a statute where grounds for divorce was indignities to his person . . . rendering life . . . burdensome. 4 In Krauss v. the husband, a Jew, became converted to Christianity. He devoted himself entirely to the new faith with zest, to the extent that he allowed his business to deteriorate, and stayed away from home at long periods of time 1061 Ariz. 373, 149 P. 2d 683 (1944). u The apropos part of the divorce statute under which the case was considered set out as grounds for divorce, Where the husband or the wife is guilty of excesses, cruel treatment or outrages towards the other Krauss15 whether by the use of personal violence or other means. Â §27-802, Axiz. CODE AnN. , 1939. U 31 Pa. Super. Ct. 53 (1906). 1 See also Prall v. Prall, 58 Fla. 496, 50 So. 867, 26 L. R. A. (N. S. ) 577 (1909). The refusal to have marital relations due to the wifes membership in an organization of which the members were deemed wedded to Christ was not grounds for desertion. 24 Act of Pa. Assembly, June 25, 1895, P. L. 308. 163 La. 218, 111 So. 683 (1927). See annotation, 58 A. L. R. 457. DUKE BAR JOURNAL tudying in various schools. Because of these activities his family was forced to a lower social station in life and compelled to live in less comfortable surroundings. The court said: If the plaintiffs evidence went no further than to show religious differences, that would end the case. The law has not designated and indeed could make diverse religious opinions a legal cause for separation. The fundamental law of the land guarantees freedom of religion and the right to worship according to the dictates of ones own conscience. But the decree was granted because of the conditions arising from the religious differences. 16 A divorce was granted where the wife, believing it to be her duty, insisted on being a Christian Science Healer ;17 where the wife was a Protestant and her husband criticised the church to which she belonged ;18 where the husband was a Roman Catholic and the wife was a Protestant and the two could not get along together ;19 and where the husband was profane to the wife who was a devout churchgoer. 0 A divorce was not granted where one spouse refused to conform to an antenuptial agreement as to the rearing of the children in the Catholic church, 21 and where the husband was a Methodist and the wife a Roman Catholic and they quarreled about his insistence on singing in the choir, 22 among other things. 10 Ibid, 111 So. at 685. The court will look . . . to the nature and character of the treatment itself in determining the question as to whe ther it amounts to such cruelties to warrant a separation. 17 Robinson v. Robinson, 66 N. H. 600, 23 Atl. 362, 15 L. R. A. 121, 49 Am. St. Rep. 632 (1891). is DeCloedt v. DeCloedt, 24 Idaho 277, 133 Pac. 664 (1913). 1 Edmonds v. Edmonds, 193 Iowa 87, 185 N. W. 2 (1921). 20 Payne v. Payne, 4 Humph. 500 (Tenn. 1844). Mirizio v. Mirizio, 242 N. Y. 74, 150 N. E. 605 (1926). See, Carty, The Enforceabilitv of Antenuptial Agreements for the Religious Instruction of Children, 2 DUKE B. J. 70 (Dec. 1951). Meffert v. Meffert, 118 Ark. 582, 177 S. W. 1 (1915); see, also, Lawrence v. Lawrence, 3 Paige 267 (N. Y. 1832). The master properly excluded evidence that the sole difficulty was the refusal of the husband to allow the wife to attend the Presbyterian church. See also, Hill v. Hill, 203 Ky. 182, 261 S. W. 115 (1924). POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS DIFFERENCES It must be strongly emphasized, however, that in the cases where a divorce was granted, the reason was not the religious differences, per se, but because of the resultant difficulties that sprung from such differences. No court has said that a complaint based on the religious differences alone between spouses constitutes adequate grounds for a divorce decree. Each court has, more or less, said the facts of each case must stand on their separate footing and whether or not mental cruelty resulted depends upon the extent and nature of the facts alleged to have constituted the cruelty. The test seems to be: Whether or not mental suffering constitutes mental cruelty depends upon the sound sense of justice of the trial court, and in each case, it is a question 23 of fact to be deduced from the circumstances. And religious differences, per se, do not constitute the requisite mental suffering. Nor is this conclusion altered by a New Jersey decision which denied to a mother custody of two minor children after a divorce decree was granted. 4 It was held that a belief in atheistic communistic doctrines renders a parent unfit to receive custody of her child. 25 It does not appear that the moving cause for the divorce was the atheistic communistic doctrines or that the court considered the religious and political disparity as the focal point for the divorce. The issue of political and religious beliefs arose to determine the character of the mother in determining her claim of custody. From the survey of the cases two conclusions can be postulated: 1. Neither religious nor political differences of themselves between spouses constitute grounds for divorce under the interpretations given the mental cruelty provisions of the statutes. 2. Difficulties flowing from such differences may be grounds for divorce if in themselves such difUngemach v. Ungemach, 61 Cal. App. 2d 29, 142 P. 2d 99 (1943). Eaton v. Eaton, 122 N. J. Eq. 142, 191 At. 839 (1936). See note, 49 HMv. L. REv. 831, where Eaton v. Eaton, supra note 24, Is criticized. 2 M DUKE BAR JOURNAL ficulties constitute mental cruelty, aside from their political or religious relationship. While the Donaldson and Braun cases (the only two considering political differences) did not refer to the apparently strong analogy in the series of religious difference cases, the analogy is implicit in the decisions. The Washington court had asserted in an earlier case that the test for determining whether religious fanaticism constitutes cruel treatment is this: Did the belief cause a disruption or destruction of family life ? 26 Thus, the Washington court adopted the unanimous view by requiring something more than religious differences per se. The decisions in the communism cases followed quite naturally and logically. Whether the reluctance stems from a feeling that religious and political differences by their very nature should not constitute grounds for divorce, that the liberality of divorce has reached its outermost limits, that there may be some constitutional objections to divorces on these bases, the courts still maintain the position that an allegation of religious or political differences in a complaint is mere surplusage and is not to become an issue before the court. Statutes Reasonable arguments may be given for extending divorce on the basis of religious or political differences between spouses. But any such extension must necessarily fall within the confines of the divorce provisions of the statutes. Recall that the Washington court refused a divorce decree because of political differences as either (1) cruel treatment, or (2) personal indignities. Most divorce statutes are set out in general terms, thus it is incumbent upon the judiciary to give them explicit meaning. Political or religious differences as grounds for divorce could only fall into that category generally stated as mental cruelty. Practically all American jurisdictions today recognize some kind of cruelty as grounds for divorce. 7 Extreme cruelty Mertens v. Mertens, 227 P. 2d 724 (Wash. 1951). -7 2 VERNIER, AmEBIcAN I . y LAWs, Â § 66, pp. 24-29 (1931). VERNIER, AmueAc FimiLY LAws, Â § 66, p. 40 (Supplement 1948). POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS DIFFERENCES is recognized in fifteen jurisdictions, means in two states. 3 28 cruel and inhuman treatment in six jurisdictions, 29 mental cruelty in nine states,80 and c ruelty by the use of physical violence or other There are ten jurisdictions that proscribe the standard of indignities as grounds for divorce. 8 2 It is thus impossible to determine any definite standard from the plain wordings of the statute because hey are couched in summary and ambiguous language, which leaves much room for judicial interpolation. For example, while Nevada provides for a standard of extreme 8 cruelty, 3 the divorce rate there is unquestionably high, due in some respects to the liberality of interpretion. 8 4 Furthermore, the earlier belief that physical violence had to accompany the cruelty has declined as a condition precedent to divorce. 35 The conduct amounting to cruelty must be unjustifiable conduct . . . which so grievously wounds the mental feelings of the other . . . as to seriously impair the bodily health, or . . . uch as utterly destroys the legit imate ends and objects of matrimony. 8 This leaves, in effect, a requirement of judicial determination of whether conduct other than physical violence or a reasonable apprehension thereof is sufficient. 37 It is the province of the trial judge to look t o the evidence in light of the circumstances and apply the law to the facts of the case. 38 Thus, 21 California, Delaware, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, North Dakota, New Jersey, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota. 29 Alaska, Indiana, Minnesota, New Mexico, Texas, Wisconsin. California, Colorado, Montana, South Dakota, Utah, Nebraska, Wisconsin, Arizona, Michigan. nArizona, Michigan. Nxv. ComP. LAws 1929, Â § 9460. For a general summarization of mental cruelty statutes see, Ramsey, Mental Cruelty as Grounds for Divorce, 5 AuK. L. REV. 419 (Fall 1951). There is nothing In the terms of the statutes that would seem to require violence as a condition precedent to divorce. Carpenter v. Carpenter, 30 Kan. 712, 2 Pac. 122, 144, 46 Am. Rep. 108 (1883). -1 See supra note 15, Krauss v. Krauss; and supra note 26, Mertens v. Mertens. 09 Stewart v. Stewart, 175 Ind. 412, 94 N. E. 564 (1911). Cruel and Inhuman is . . . a relative term, and of necessity must depend upon circumstances of each particular case. DUKE BAR JOURNAL indifferent aversion and profane language may constitute cruelty. 39 The term indignities while encompassing a broad scope, have been defined rather narrowly by the courts. The cases emphasize a course of conduct evidencing intentional and deliberate neglect, estrangement, and settled hatred. 40 It seems that in those states using this term, the good sense of justice and prudence of the trial courts are relied on to give it meaning. 1 The suggestion, though, that the cases emphasize a course of conduct of an intentional character narrows considerably the relief proffer42 ed. This note is in no sense intended to be a summarization of mental cruelty statutes in the United States. Rather, a brief outline of the scope of the phrase cruelty as used in divorce statutes, with an emphasis on the latitude left the courts in the application of the standards to particular facts and circumstances. The statutes, as a whole, fail to spell out in detail the particular facts requisite as conditions for divorce. The courts are left with seemingly discretionary power to fill in the gaps and give the statutes definite meaning. Therefore, it would seem possible, if circumstances warranted, to draw into the statute the fact of political or religious affiliation with a non-accepted group as a ground for divorce. The justification of this brief outline of cruelty statutes is that if religious and political differences are to be used as a basis of divorce, it must be done so by the osmosis process into the cruelty provisions. The reticent factor is not the statutes, but the reluctance of the judiciary. Thompson v. Thompson, 16 Wash. 2d 78, 132 P. 2d 734 (1943); also Sabot v. Sabot, 97 Wash. 395, 166 Pac. 624 (1917). 10 Ramsey, op cit. supra note 34. See Trenchard v. Trenchard, 245 Ill, 313, 92 N. E. 243 (1910). ,1 Bova v. Bova, 135 S. W. 2d 384 (Mo. App. 1940). It is impossible to lay down any rule that will apply to all cases in determining what indignities are grounds of divorce because they rend er the condition of the injured party intolerable . . . . [E]ach case [is] to be determined according to its own peculiar circumstances. 42 Ramsey, op cit. supra note 34. These decisions do, however, require the conduct complained of to be intentional which as has been seen is not a uniform requirement under the ordinary cruelty statutes. POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS DIFFERENCES Political and Religious Differences as Cruelty It is to be presumed that the matter of divorce is a subjective matter manifested by overt acts provable in court. Those acts which to one spouse would be cruel, reprehensible and inhuman, may be tolerable and inconsequential to another. Thus, the subjective attitude of one of the spouses should be the moving test as to whether or not a divorce should be granted. Ridiculous reasons should be given no credence in court. But when a factor of obvious friction enters a home and make compatibility no longer possible, the courts should listen with sympathetic ear and grant the deserving party relief. Consider the case of Mrs. X. She has been married to her husband for ten years. They have gotten along reasonably well. Mr. X, being dissatisfied with social and political conditions drifts into the Communist party. He becomes an active member thereof. In no way does he lessen his affection for his wife. He still gives her the same living allowance and in all ways acts the same. But Mr. Xs recent affiliation becomes known to the community. Perhaps he is summoned to testify before a congressional hearing investigating labor conditions in Mr. Xs community. Mrs. X finds herself in an embarrassing situation. She feels the Communist party constitutes a threat to our country and is directly responsible for the Korean War. She feels she cannot honestly live with a man who supports such foreign and anti-American doctrine. She applies to the court for a divorce on the grounds of mental cruelty, alleging the cause to be her husbands political affiliations. The decree is denied! Such a decree would be denied in every jurisdiction today, if the law concerning political and religious differences as grounds for divorce remains unaltered. From a reading of the decisions, one can detect two motivating factors which cause the courts hesitancy to allow these elements to constitute sufficient grounds for divorce. The first factor was spelled out in the case of Eaton 8 v. Eaton. 4 There the fitness of the mother as custodian 13Supra note 24. DUKE BAR JOURNAL of the children was challenged because of her atheistic communistic beliefs, and was the reasons for denying her custody of the children. On commenting to this case it was suggested: [T]here would seem to be no such relation between the parents political creed and the childs welfare as would justify an inquiry into the formers beliefs, in view of the attendant risk of prejudice when the issue of Communism is raised. 44 The argument, sub silentio, is that because of an overt distaste for Communism a litigant would not get a fair and impartial judgment before a judicial tribunal. No doubt this would be true in some instances. But it is to be wondered if a judge would be more antipathetical towards a Communist husband than to a drunken or unfaithful one. The trial judges attitude of the conduct of the defendant is not the important factor. (Indeed the attendant risk of judicial prejudice is presented in most every type of controversial litigation. ) The initial factor in a divorce trial is what the spouse seeking the divorce thinks of the other, and whether she actually suffered mental cruelty merely because of a political or religious belief. If such is the case, and such wrong is a legal wrong, then a divorce should be granted. It is quite possible that any trial judge might disfavor a litigant who is a Communist. But if that communism has in fact caused mental cruelty as to justify a severing of marital relations, the political or religious beliefs of the jurist would be inconsequential. To argue that Communism is a disfavored belief and thus should not be a basis for judicial relief overlooks the very essence of the reason for divorce provisions which seem to be grounded in the wise public policy of allowing persons to disband a legal relationship when intolerable circumstances become present in the marital status. And also it indicates a stringent narrow mindedness as to the ability of our courts and jurists. The second reason for viewing with skepticism religious or political differences as grounds for divorce can be found Sura note 25. S, POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS DIFFERENCES 145 in the opinion of Krauss v. Krauss. 45 The fundamental law of the land guarantees freedom of religion and the right to worship according to the dictates of ones own conscience. Impliedly expressed is that the right to political freedom is also guaranteed by the Constitution. Thus, a judicial discrimination based on a religious or political ground would be invalid as violative of the 1st and 14th amendments. If a divorced Communist husband were to complain that he was severed from his spouse because of political beliefs and thus was denied equal protection of the laws, his argument might gain some support. He might feel himself the subject of discrimination not visited on a Socialist, Progressive, Dixiecrat, et al. But again, such an argument overlooks the subjective nature of a divorce proceeding. It is not intended here to delve into constitutional ramifications or to predict a decision involving communism. But Chief Justice Vinsons remarks are apt: The fact that the statute identifies persons by their political affiliations and beliefs, which are circumstances ordinarily irrelevant to permissable subjects of governmental action, does not lead to the conclusion that such circumstances are never 46 relevant. It is submitted that every man has a constitutional right to be a drunkard if he wants to, but this causes no hesitancy on the part of trial courts to grant a divorce if the circumstances warrant. Divorce based on political beliefs would in no way encroach upon the right of a man to believe or worship as he desires. He is not being punished for his opinions or subjected to ridicule. In no respect are punitive measures imposed, but he may be subjected to personal and social sanctions. However, the former may be the case in many divorces based on grounds wholly anterior to the subject of discussion. It would equally be an invasion of rights to force a person to suffer the public indignities concomitant with having a spouse who is a Communist, and not being allowed to gain a divorce. upra note 15. DUKE BAR JOURNAL The marital status, among other things, is a legal relationship. The legislatures in their wisdom have devised standards which may be applied to dissolve the relationship. As has been seen, such standards are ambiguous and mental cruelty has come to embrace many variant circumstances. But the underlying principle would appear to stand as ascertainable. It would mean a c ondition of mind created in one spouse that makes that spouse believe it is no longer possible to live with the other. To say that Communism or Sanctificationism cannot create such an attitude is an idealistic expression of judicial naivetb. 47 Returning to the case of Mrs. X and assuming that she has suffered mental anxiety, it is unfortunate that relief cannot be had in the courts (or to get relief it will be necessary to present further evidence). The barrier to divorcing her husband would seem to be unfair, if the real purpose of divorce statutes is to allow separation when certain conditions manifest themselves in family life. To draw arbitrarily the line here seems to evade the overall intent and purposes of divorce machinery. Mental cruelty could cover the resultant difficulties occasioned because of religious or political differences if the courts were inclined to be more liberal in their interpretation of what mental cruelty really is. It could be expected that such a liberality of interpretation, if indeed such is liberal interpretation, would result in advantage being taken of the latitude given to grant a divorce because of religious or political differences. But such can be expected in most any type of regulation. It cannot truthfully be said that no divorce has ever been given when it was not deserved. We must anticipate only the justice in allowing divorce when actually needed or deserved. It would be unfair to punish those innocent parties for fear of the few who might abuse the privilege, and who might take advantage of this basis for divorce rather than proceed within the proper limits of the law. The law 0 American Communications Association v. Douds, 339 U. S. 382, 391 (1950). This is not a divorce case. ,7 This, in effect, is what the courts have suggested-that the differences cannot create a condition of mind in any case that would justify the granting of a divorce. See, Donaldson v. Donaldson, supra note 1. POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS DIFFERENCES should take recognition of that actual suffering that can occur because of diverse religious and political differences, instead of indulging in speculation of what might happen. Conclusion The picture is not one of hopelessness for a married person with a spouse indulging in religious or political activities repugnant to the other. From a sampling of the opinions it is certain that religious or political differences, per se, will not constitute the requisite grounds for divorce. Yet, if a party can show that some type of collateral suffering has coccurred, incident to the political or religious activities that cause a disruption of the family, or cause pernicious mischief to the family life, or lower the social life of the other spouse, inter alia, a divorce will be granted on the basis of mental cruelty. Therefore, if a wife can show that her husband is a Communist, that she can not get employment because of his activities, that her friends shun her and her relatives ignore her, and, thus, she has become a nervous wreck, most jurisdictions would allow a divorce. The reason for the divorce would be the resulting conditions caused by the political or religious differences, and not the differences in beliefs themselves. Thus the attorney for the complaining spouse, before instituting proceedings, should make certain such conditions exist and the complaint so specifies. Actually, in most instances the only time a divorce would be desired would be when these conditions do exist. And that it could then be had seems clear. In most instances it would be the tangible circumstances resulting from diverse opinions that would make one desire a divorce. But it is when mental cruelty results as a per se consequence of political or religious differences, not contingent on consequential acts, that divorce relief is denied, and where possibly, we argue, it should be offered. But it seems sufficient to say that no complaint in any disparity will now bring relief. The courts have been uniformly cold to the suggestion that such disparity constitutes sufficient grounds for divorce. Nor is there any apparent judicial inclination to alter this attitude.

College Management System free essay sample

Computerized college management system is developed to facilitate the general administration system to manage the various information of student and employees involved in college. So, that college can access accurate information quickly and easily as and when required, thereby improving its operational efficiency and effectiveness. 1. 1Problem Statement In case of manual system they need a lot of time, manpower etc. Here almost all work is computerized. So the accuracy is maintained. College Management System mainly deals with Employee Profile, Payroll Management and Fee collection which can be managed by the Admin. 1. 2 Objectives †¢ Create employee details, achievements and workshop they have conducted †¢ Calculate the employee salary in payroll management †¢ Store the fee details of students and view CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE SURVEY 2. 1 Introduction Today in colleges student details are entered manually. The student details in separate records are tedious task. Referring to all these records and updating is needed. There is a chance for more manual errors. By developing the system we can attain the following facilities. ? Easy to handle and feasible. ? Cost reduction. ? Fast and convenient. 2. 2 Existing system In early days College management system used to manages all the details manually. Which is difficult in conventional management system which maintains the records manually, which slows the operation of storing, retrieving of records from the files, also led to drawbacks like data redundancy and inconsistency. Limitation In early days College management system used to manages all the details manually. 2. 3 Proposed system To overcome the drawbacks faced in conventional systems we are moving towards modern approach in which we automate these processes, for efficient management of organization. By building customized application software, computerized maintenance of these details by the use of this application will provide ease-of-use, efficient store/access to data and prevents data redundancy. In our application we have computerized all the manual system. In this application admin will enter the details of employee and also enter the salary details. Admin enter the details student fee details. CHAPTER 3 REQUIREMENTS SPECIFICATION AND ANALYSIS 3. 1 Software Requirement Specification Introduction A Software Requirements Specification (SRS) is a complete description of the behavior of the system that is to be developed. Use Case technique can be used in order to find functional requirements of the software product. Functional requirements are statements of services the system should provide, how the system should react to particular inputs and how the system should behave in particular situations. The functional requirements also explicitly state what the system should not do. SRS also includes Non-functional (or supplementary) requirements. Non-functional requirements are constraints on the services or functions offered by the system. As system grew more complex, it becomes evident that the goal of the entire system cannot be easily comprehended. Hence the need for the requirement phase arose. ROLE PURPOSE of SRS This SRS describes the software functional non functional requirements. This document is intended to use by the members of the project team that will implement and verify the correct functioning of the system. Unless otherwise noted, all requirements specified here are high priorities and committed. A complete understanding of software requirements is essential to the success of a software development effort. No matter how well designed or well coded. A poorly analyzed and specified program will disappoint the client. Software Requirements Specification (SRS) specifies the general factors like the external interfaces, evolution or growth path of the system, functional requirements, user characteristics and the assumptions, dependencies and risks associated with the system. 3. Requirement Specification 1. Functional Requirements ? Admin will create all employee details with their photos ? List all the details of employee ? Store and Display the workshops conducted by the employee ? Calculate the employee salary and display ? Store and display the fee details of students 3. 2. 2 Non-Functional Requirements †¢ Availability System must be available for the working hours. †¢ Price C ost is less. †¢ Usability – It should be friendly to use and access different pages. User interface should be good. †¢ Scalability- It should support at least 5000 users. Performance- It should be tested and maintained properly. †¢ Reliability- Software reliability brings up the concept of modularity. A package with a high degree of modularity has the capacity to operate in many machine configurations and perhaps across manufacture product lines. 3. 3 Hardware and Software Requirements Software Requirements †¢ Front End: ASP †¢ IDE:Visual studio 2005 †¢ Language:C# †¢ Back End: MS Access †¢ Operating System: Windows XP Hardware Requirements †¢ PROCESSOR : Pentium – IV †¢ RAM : 512MB †¢ HDD:20GB CHAPTER 4 SYSTEM DESIGN AND ANALYSIS 4. 1 System design Design is an important step in the development of large scale system. Design provides us with a blue print to develop a system. Once the software requirements have been analyzed and specified the software design can be expressed using notations such as DFDs, UML notations to describe the proposed solution to the problem . These Notations allows us to understand complex system clearly and serves as blue print for the proposed system. The design activities are of main importance because this activity ultimately affecting the sources of the software implementation and its ease of maintenance are made . hese deceptions have the bearing upon reliability and maintainability of the system. Proper design is the only way to accurately translate the customer’s requirements into finished software or a system. Software design generally involve two steps 1. Preliminary Design 2. Detail Design The preliminary design is used to translate the problem specifications into a graphical system rep resentation. The Detailed design is concerned with breaking the whole solution into number of modules. This process of division of system into many sub modules reduces the complexity of problem solving. . 2 Modules and Description College Management System mainly deals with Employee Profile, Payroll Management and Fee collection which can be managed by the Admin. 4. 2. 1 Modules: 1. Employee Profile 2. Payroll Management 3. Fee collection 2. Description: 1. Employee Profile Admin will enter the details of employee profile. Employee Profile contains the all details of employee with their profile photo, it is also contains the achievements of employee and workshops they have conducted. Admin also search the details of employee. 2. Payroll Management Payroll Management calculates employee salary. 3. Fee collection Fee collection tracks all the fee details of a student from the day one to the end of his course. 4. 3 Usecase Modeling Use Case Diagrams represents the functionality of the system from a user’s point view. They define the boundaries of the system. [pic] Fig 4. 3. 1 4. 4 Sequence Diagram The sequence diagram represents the system’s behavior in terms of interactions among a set of objects. They are used to identify the objectives in the application and implementation domain. Fig 4. 4. 1 [pic] 4. 5 Activity Diagram Activity diagram is another important diagram in UML to describe dynamic aspects of the system. It is basically a flow chart to represent the flow form one activity to another activity. The activity can be described as an operation of the system. So the control flow is drawn from one operation to another. This flow can be sequential, branched or concurrent. Activity diagrams deals with all type of flow control by using different elements like fork, join etc. Purpose: The basic purposes of activity diagrams are similar to other four diagrams. It captures the dynamic behavior of the system. Other four diagrams are used to show the message flow from one object to another but activity diagram is used to show message flow from one activity to another. Activity is a particular operation of the system. Activity diagrams are not only used for visualizing dynamic nature of a system but they are also used to construct the executable system by using forward and reverse engineering techniques. The only missing thing in activity diagram is the message part. It does not show any message flow from one activity to another. Activity diagram is some time considered as the flow chart. Although the diagrams looks like a flow chart but it is not. It shows different flow like parallel, branched, concurrent and single. †¢ Draw the activity flow of a system. †¢ Describe the sequence from one activity to another. †¢ Describe the parallel, branched and concurrent flow of the system. [pic] Fig 4. 5. 1 4. 6 Data flow diagram Designing with the Data Flow Diagrams involves creating a model of the system. The entities and attributes are a model, of the states of the system. Processes model the rules of a System. The stimuli and response are modeled by Data Flows. All of these models are combined into one graphic model called a Data Flow Diagram. DFD’s have a notation for each of the components of the system. They also have a notation for representing different levels in a hierarchy of detailed used to describe the system. This notation makes it possible to represent an overall view of a large complex system and a detailed view of a part of a system using the same notation. Parts of the system can be isolated into independent sub-system. [pic] Fig 4. 6. 1 CHAPTER 5 IMPLEMENTATION 5. 1 Software tools used 5. 1. 1 ASP What is ASP? ASP stands for Active Server Pages. Microsoft introduced Active Server Pages inDecember 1996, beginning with Version 3. 0. Microsoft officially defines ASP as:â€Å"Active Server Pages is an open, compile-free application environment in which you can combine HTML, scripts, and reusable ActiveX server components to create dynamic and powerful Web-based business solutions. Active Server pages enables server side scripting for IIS with native support for both VBScript and Jscript. † In other words, ASP is a Microsoft technology that enables you to create dynamic web sites with the help of server side script, such as VBScript and Jscript. ASP technology is supported on all Microsoft Web servers that are freely available. What is an ASP file? An ASP file is quite like an HTML file. It contains text, HTML tags and scripts, which are executed on the server. The two widely used scripting languages for an ASP page are VBScript and JScript. VBScript is pretty much like Visual Basic, whereas Jscript is the Microsoft’s version of JavaScript. However, VBScript is the default scripting language for ASP (3). Besides these two scripting languages, you can use other scripting language with ASP as long as you have an ActiveX scripting engine for the language installed, such as PerlScript. The difference between an HTML file and an ASP file is that an ASP file has the â€Å". asp† extension. Furthermore, script delimiters for HTML tags and ASP code are also different. A script delimiter is a character that marks the starting and ending of a unit. HTML tags begins with lesser than () brackets, whereas ASP script typically starts with . In between the delimiters are the server-side scripts. ASP includes five build-in objects:  · Request – to get information from the user that is passed along with an HTTP request  · Response – to output data to the requesting client Server – to control the Internet Information Server  · Session – to store variables associated with a given user session  · Application – to store information that remain active for the lifetime of an application, such as a page counter. What are its advantages? 1. Dynamic web page – Since ASP supports scripting languages, which run on the web server, yo ur web page can be dynamically created. For example, you can create your web page so as to greeting each user when they log into your page differently. 2. Browser independent – ASP is browser independent because all the scripting code runs on the server. The browser only gets the results from the server in a standard HTML page. 3. Database Access – One of the greatest assets of ASP is database connectivity. ASP enables you to easily build rich database functionality into your web site, such as form processing. 4. Building-in objects – The five built-in objects that come with ASP facilitate Web application development. For example, you can use Request object to retrieve browser request information. 5. Free availability – Yes, it’s free. You can download web server (IIS or PWS) for free from Microsoft’s web site. You don’t even have to have any special tool to write an ASP file. In other words, you can simply use any text editor, like NotePad. 5. 1. 2 C# Language C# programs run on the . NET Framework, an integral component of Windows that includes a virtual execution system called the common language runtime (CLR) and a unified set of class libraries. The CLR is Microsofts commercial implementation of the common language infrastructure (CLI), an international standard that is the basis for creating execution and development environments in which languages and libraries work together seamlessly. Source code written in C# is compiled into an intermediate language (IL) that conforms to the CLI specification. The IL code, along with resources such as bitmaps and strings, is stored on disk in an executable file called an assembly, typically with an extension of . exe or . dll. An assembly contains a manifest that provides information on the assemblys types, version, culture, and security requirements. When the C# program is executed, the assembly is loaded into the CLR, which might take various actions based on the information in the manifest. Then, if the security requirements are met, the CLR performs just in time (JIT) compilation to convert the IL code into native machine instructions. The CLR also provides other services related to automatic garbage collection, exception handling, and resource management. Code that is executed by the CLR is sometimes referred to as managed code, in contrast to unmanaged code which is compiled into native machine language that targets a specific system. The following diagram illustrates the compile-time and run time relationships of C# source code files, the base class libraries, assemblies, and the CLR. pic] Language interoperability is a key feature of the . NET Framework. Because the IL code produced by the C# compiler conforms to the Common Type Specification (CTS), IL code generated from C# can interact with code that was generated from the . NET versions of Visual Basic, Visual C++, Visual J#, or any of more than 20 other CTS-compliant languages. A single assembly may contain mul tiple modules written in different . NET languages, and the types can reference each other just as if they were written in the same language. In addition to the run time services, the . NET Framework also includes an extensive library of over 4000 classes organized into namespaces that provide a wide variety of useful functionality for everything from file input and output to string manipulation to XML parsing, to Windows Forms controls. The typical C# application uses the . NET Framework class library extensively to handle common plumbing chores. 5. 1. 3 MS Access Microsoft Office Access, previously known as Microsoft Access, is a database management system from Microsoft that combines the relational Microsoft Jet Database Engine with a graphical user interface and software-development tools. MS Access stores data in its own format based on the Access Jet Database Engine. It can also import or link directly to data stored in other applications and databases. Software developers and data architects can use Microsoft Access to develop application software, and power users can use it to build software applications. Like other Office applications, Access is supported by Visual Basic for Applications, an object-oriented programming language that can reference a variety of objects including DAO (Data Access Objects), ActiveX Data Objects, and many other ActiveX components. Visual objects used in forms and reports expose their methods and properties in the VBA programming environment, and VBA code modules may declare and call Windows operating-system functions. USES: ? In addition to using its own database storage file, Microsoft Access may also be used as the front-end with other products as the back-end tables, such as Microsoft SQL Server ? Access tables support a variety of standard field types, indices, and referential integrity. Access also includes a query interface, forms to display and enter data, and reports for printing. The number of simultaneous users that can be supported depends on the amount of data, the tasks being performed, level of use, and application design. FEATURES ? Users can create tables, queries, forms and reports, and connect them together with macros. ? The original concept of Access was for end users to be able to access data from any source. ? Microsoft Access offers parameterized queries. These queries and Access tables can be referenced from other programs like VB6 and . NET through DAO or ADO. From Microsoft Access, VBA can reference parameterized stored procedures via ADO. . 1. 4 Microsoft Visual Studio IDE Microsoft Visual Studio is an integrated development environment (IDE) from Microsoft. It is used to develop console and graphical user interface applications along with Windows Forms applications, web sites, web applications, and web services in both native code together with managed code for all platforms supported by Microsoft Windows, Windows Mobile, Windows CE, . NET Framework, . NET Compact Framework and Microsoft Silverlight. Visual Studio includes a code editor supporting IntelliSense as well as code refactoring. The integrated debugger works both as a source-level debugger and a machine-level debugger. Other built-in tools include a forms designer for building GUI applications, web designer, class designer, and database schema designer. It accepts plug-ins that enhance the functionality at almost every level—including adding support for source-control systems (like Subversion and Visual SourceSafe) and adding new toolsets like editors and visual designers for domain-specific languages or toolsets for other aspects of the software development lifecycle (like the Team Foundation Server client: Team Explorer). It provides a way to check the functionality of components, sub assemblies, assemblies and /or a finished product. It is a process of exercising software with the intent of ensuring that the software system needs its requirements and user expectations and doesn’t fall in an unacceptable manner. 6. 2 Functional Testing Functional tests provide systematic demonstrations that functions tested are available as specified by the business and technical requirements, system documentation, and user manuals. †¢ Functional testing is centered on the following items: †¢ Valid messages: Identified classes of valid messages must be accepted. Invalid messages: Identified classes of invalid messages must be rejected. †¢ Functions: Identified functions must be exercised. †¢ Output: Identified classes of application outputs must be exercised. †¢ Systems/Procedures: Interfacing systems or procedures must be invoked. 6. 3 Unit Testing In computer programming, unit testing is a method by which individual units of source code, sets of one or more computer program modules together with associated control data, usage procedures, and operating procedures, are tested to determine if they are fit for use. Intuitively, one can view a unit as the smallest testable part of an application. The goal of unit testing is to isolate each part of the program and show that the individual parts are correct. 6. 4 Integration Testing Software integration testing is the incremental integration testing of two or more integrated software components on a single platform to produce failures caused by interface defects. Integration testing (sometimes called Integration and Testing, abbreviated IT) is the phase in software testing in which individual software modules are combined and tested as a group. It occurs after unit testing and before validation testing. Integration testing takes as its input modules that have been unit tested, groups them in larger aggregates, applies tests defined in an integration test plan to those aggregates, and delivers as its output the integrated system ready for system testing. 6. 5 System Testing 6. 5. 1 Verification Verification is intended to check that a product, service, or system meets a set of initial design requirements, specifications, and regulations. In the development phase, verification procedures involve performing special tests to model or simulate a portion, or the entirety, of a product, service or system, then performing a review or analysis of the modeling results. In the post-development phase, verification procedures involve regularly repeating tests devised specifically to ensure that the product, service, or system continues to meet the initial design requirements, specifications, and regulations as time progresses. citation needed] It is a process that is used to evaluate whether a product, service, or system complies with regulations, specifications, or conditions imposed at the start of a development phase. Verification can be in development, scale-up, or production. This is often an internal process. 6. 5. 2 Validation Validation is intended to check that development and verification procedures for a product, service, or system (or portion thereof, or set thereof) result in a product, service, or system (or portio n thereof, or set thereof) that meets initial requirements, specifications, and regulations. For a new development flow or verification flow, validation procedures may involve modeling either flow and using simulations to predict faults or gaps that might lead to invalid or incomplete verification or development of a product, service, or system (or portion thereof, or set thereof). A set of validation requirements, specifications, and regulations may then be used as a basis for qualifying a development flow or verification flow for a product, service, or system (or portion thereof, or set thereof). Additional validation procedures also include those that are designed specifically to ensure that modifications made to an existing qualified development flow or verification flow will have the effect of producing a product, service, or system (or portion thereof, or set thereof) that meets the initial design requirements, specifications, and regulations; these validations help to keep the flow qualified. [citation needed] It is a process of establishing evidence that provides a high degree of assurance that a product, service, or system accomplishes its intended requirements. . 5. 3 White-Box Testing White-box testing (also known as clear box testing, glass box testing, transparent box testing, and structural testing) is a method of testing software that tests internal structures or workings of an application, as opposed to its functionality (i. e. black-box testing). In white-box testing an internal perspective of the system, as well as programming skills, are used to design test c ases. The tester chooses inputs to exercise paths through the code and determine the appropriate outputs. This is analogous to testing nodes in a circuit.