Situational Crime Prevention Strategies - 2031 Words

Situational crime prevention in some crimes is more successful than that of developmental. Situational Crime prevention takes an approach that the victim is responsible for implementing measures to protect themselves whilst developmental needs programs to be undergone by the offender. The two prevention strategies will be discussed in relation to burglary. Ronald V Clarke originally developed the idea of situational crime prevention in the 1980’s (Brantingham Brantingham 2005). This particular crime prevention theory addresses techniques that increase the effort required to commit the crime, increase the risks involved with committing the crime, reducing the reward gained by the offender after committing the crime, reducing the†¦show more content†¦Routine activity theory believes crime is committed when there is a motivated offender, a suitable target and the absence of a capable guardian, and prevention happens when one of those elements are addressed (Morgan, Boxall, Linderman Anderson 2012). Crime pattern theory focuses on the belief that offenders are opportunistic and they encounter opportunities for crime in the process of their everyday lives (Morgan, Boxall, Linderman Anderson 2012). Finally, rational choice focuses on the theory that the offender weighs up risk and rewards with offending (Morgan, Boxall, Li nderman Anderson 2012). All three theories are considered when creating and implementing situational crime prevention strategies. There are considerable amounts of evidence that situational crime prevention is an effective measure in reducing crime in Australia (Morgan, Boxall, Linderman Anderson 2012). Developmental crime prevention however, focuses on the social backgrounds of offenders. This strategy of crime prevention aims to do something about crime in the early stages therefore it is obvious that the strategy is mostly aimed at children (Homel 2005). In developmental crime prevention it focuses on the developmental pathways of a persons life containing transition points when intervention can prove to be most effective (Homel 2005). TheShow MoreRelatedApproaches to Crime Prevention Essay1036 Words   |  5 PagesFor Crime Prevention Jamal Sanchez Bush Crime Prevention CJ212 June 21, 2011 Introduction Crime prevention has influenced by so many fields like sociology, psychology, criminology, urban planning and design, health care, education, community development, economics social work, among the others. This paper focuses on the dominant approaches to crime prevention which is currently used by law enforcement, courts, and corrections. The dominant approaches to crime preventionRead MoreUsing Material from Item a and Elsewhere, Assess Sociological Views of Crime Reduction Strategies.841 Words   |  4 Pagesassess sociological views of crime reduction strategies. (21 marks). There are numerous different types of strategies for crime reduction. These include crime prevention tactics which are suitable for whole societies, and also forms of punishment which are suitable for individuals. Crime prevention strategies include situational crime prevention, environmental crime prevention, and social and community crime prevention. Ron Clark describes situational crime prevention as ‘a pre-emptive approach thatRead MoreRoutine Activity And Situational Crime Prevention Theory1082 Words   |  5 Pagestheory states that for a crime to be committed, three important factors need to be present including: a motivated offender, an accessible target, and the absence of a capable guardian against a violation. Marcus Felson and Lawrence E. Cohen introduced the routine activity theory in 1979, where they believed that an individual who has these three characteristics gives them a greater possibility of committing a crime. Moreover, situational crime prevention is known as strategies of ways for preventingRead MoreCrime Prevention Is A Rather Elastic Term1620 Words   |  7 Pages‘Crime prevention’ is an extremely broad term that intends to change and shape behaviour or events in order to reduce the possibility or probability of crime. â€Å"Crime prevention is a rather elastic term, which at its broa dest encompasses any activity intended to reduce the frequency of events defined as crimes by the criminal law† (Hough et al, 1980 cited in Doherty, 2005, p.126). Thus is can be hard to completely define crime prevention in one singular definition, as there are many areas that canRead MoreCrime Is A Serious Problem1487 Words   |  6 PagesPolicing and fighting crime are two terms often associated together. Crime is a serious problem in cities and a lot of people are affected by it. Victims, criminals and their families are touched by the outcomes of crime. Crime has increased over the years and is continuing to do so. The city of Memphis has experienced a great increase of crime. Memphis Police have developed initiatives to reduce crime, using federally funded programs. Unfortunately, crime problems such as theft, assaults and homicideRead MoreImpact of Developmental Theories on Crime Prevention Program Implementation675 Words   |  3 PagesDevelopmental Theories Impact on Crime Prevention Program Implementation Objective The objective of this study is to examine how developmental theories impact implementation of Crime Prevention Programs. Welsh and Farrington (2010) note that crime prevention holds different meanings for different people and the programs and policies focused on crime prevention includes the arrest by police who are coping with problems associated with gangs and a court disposal of the case, secure correctional facilityRead MoreThe Classical School Of Thought889 Words   |  4 Pagesthat highlighted criminality as a rational choice decided by a person’s own free will. The idea of rational choice led to the development of the Classical school of thought, which sought to deter and prevent crime by making the fear of punishment worse than the gratification attained from crime. However, while free will and rational choice sought to explain criminality, other theorists began to consider that some individuals are biologically predisposed to criminal behavior. The development of theRead MoreCriminality and Victimization Are Affected by Globalization1829 Words   |  7 Pagespolicies, and in promoting, coordinating and supporting crime prevention. On the other hand, personnel with different skills and roles in crime prevention, whether police officers, judges and prosecutors, probation officers, social workers, health service, researchers, civil society organizations and communities, all play an important role in crime prevention project development and implementation (Shaw, et al, 2010, p.xx). Risk of crime At the global level, countries are influenced by: majorRead MoreEssay on Approaches to crime prevention1666 Words   |  7 Pages Approaches to crime prevention have emerged over time and are demonstrated in different solutions, practices, and policies executed by law enforcement, courts, corrections, family, and community. Some of the dominant approaches to crime prevention currently used by law enforcement, courts, corrections, family, and community are: situational crime prevention, crime prevention through social development, crime prevention through environmental design, community crime prevention, reduction of recidivismRead MoreCrime And Crime : Criminology And Criminology1211 Words   |  5 Pages Crime choice theory, often referred to as environmental criminology or ecological criminology, is a branch of criminology that was supposedly started by the classical school’s Cesare Beccaria. As with many theories, it has evolved with time, but the basics of it have stayed much the same throughout time. Crime choice theory can relate through other theories such as; routine activity theory, environm ental criminology, situational crime prevention and crime prevention through environmental design

Christianity And Its Impact On The World And The United...

In the last few hundred years there have been three new views on Christianity to take root in society and impact the world and they were; Neo-Orthodox, Evangelism and Liberalism. These three had quite the impact of the faith throughout Europe and the United States. The three had varying ideals, but it some case overlapped. However, Neo-Orthodoxy seems to be the most effective when communicating with Scripture. Liberalism will be the first to be covered in this paper, as well as the most radical in some aspects. Liberals took a new approach to what they viewed has an out of date religion, and changed the authority of the Bible and considered other sources of authority to help adapt Christianity into the new modern thinking of their time. â€Å"Reason, culture, experiences and science would all be employed in challenge to the classical authority of revelation.†(Bingham) The father of the Liberalist movement was the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher. Schleiermache r made an effort to separate religion from theology. To him religion wasn’t just beliefs or ethics, but was based in knowledge and action, theology is then the reflection of said actions. Religion ending up being nothing more than just feelings and experiences and each person’s own experiences turn into their revelations. This also made the teachings of the Scriptures important. His view on Jesus was that he was just a good teacher that’s job was to awaken people to God so they can work through them,Show MoreRelatedRomes Contribution to Todays Society Essay934 Words   |  4 Pagessingle most important contribution to modern society was Romes adoption of Christianity. Christianity, having its foundational roots in Judaism, was born in the midst of the Roman era. It has shaped todays society on many different levels with varying degrees of legal, political and sociological implications. 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All over the world, Christianity seems to be growing more and more steadily. It also seems that in some cases, it actually boosts an economy positively. It was stated in â€Å"The Telegraph† that by the year 2030 China will become the worlds most â€Å"Christian Nation.† Even though the United States i s currently the largest Christian nation in the world, it will soon become second to China. Yes so called communistRead MoreReligion : The United States And The European Union1648 Words   |  7 Pagesinfluences virtually every aspect of our lives and governs both our individual and collective life (Hajizadeh, 2013). Religion plays an integral role in every country whether it is a third-world country, such as some African or Middle Eastern countries, or industrialized capitalist countries like the United States and the European Union. Over the past few decades many global events have brought religion’s growing influence over society, especially its role in affecting politics (Hajizadeh, 2013). TheRead MoreEssay on Analysis of Narrative Of The Life Of Frederick Douglass1287 Words   |  6 Pageswas a social reformer, statesman, orator and writer in the United States. Douglass believed in the equality of every individual of different races, gender or immigrants. In this book, Douglass narrated the life of a slave in the United States into finer details. This paper will give a description of life a slave in the United States was living, as narrated through the experiences of Fredrick Douglass. Life of a slave in the United States The narrative begins by informing the readers that slavesRead MoreA Short Note On The Edict Of Milan873 Words   |  4 Pages After the fascinating discoveries from Marco Polo, another event that was significant throughout Western Civilization is the Edict of Milan. 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Islam wasRead MoreAnalysis Of Peter Berger s The Desecularization Of The World Resurgent Religion1401 Words   |  6 PagesPeter Berger in The Desecularization of the World Resurgent Religion argues against modernization theory which states as the world modernizes religiosity decreases. Berger contends in the face of empirical evidence secularization theory is untenable. Berger argues it is irresponsible to label the world as secular in the midst of empirical evidence. Evidence is presented that suggests the world is no less religious than other times in history with notable exceptions primarily in European regionsRead MoreHmong Culture : Influences On A European American Society1488 Words   |  6 PagesDevelopment finds that the Hmong primarily lived in Laos, Vietnam, and Thailand. They had a great impact in helping western forces during the Vietnam War, and wars in Laos in efforts to end Communism. 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Political and Religious Differences as Grounds for Divorce free essay sample

The defendant answered with a cross complaint requesting that he be awarded the divorce and custody of a minor child. The plaintiffs complaint was dismissed and the counter claim allowed. The Supreme Court held that the fact the wife was a member of the communist party at the time of her marriage and refused to continue in the religious beliefs of her birth did not entitle the husband to a divorce. The decree was reversed and remanded. The court said: Neither a religious belief (or the lack of such belief) nor a political or social opinion is of itself grounds for divorce in this jurisdiction. In arriving at this conclusion the court pointed out that the only provision of the statute under which the counter complaint might possibly lie was that which provided Cruel treatment of either party by the other, or personal indignities rendering life burdensome 2 are grounds for divorce. Thus, the court was of the opinion that divergent political opinions, per se, do not constitute the essential elements of either (1) cruel treatment, or (2) personal indignities. 3 * 2nd year law student, Duke University; A. B. Colgate, 1950. 31 P. 2d 607 (Wash. 1951). See case note, 14 GA. B. J. 238 (Nov. 1951). 2 LAws OF WASH. , 1949, c. 215, Â §2, p. 698, REM. Supp. 1949 Â §997-2. 3 Cf. New York Herald Tribune, March 8, 1952, p. 1. A court in Potsdam, East Germany, has ruled a man may divorce his wife for not being sufficiently Marxist, even though he may have admitted adultery. . .. The wifes politically weak conduct drove him to turn away from her, it said. POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS DIFFERENCES Certain questions immediately arise from an opinion of this sort. Is the basis of the courts opinion the judicial determination that the essential elements of what constitutes cruel treatment do not encompass the incompatibility that results because of political disparity, so that other courts with different opinions might arrive at a different conclusion? Do the divorce statutes conceive of political differences as grounds for divorce? If they do, are there any policy factors that would preclude their inclusion into divorce regulation? The law is scant with opinions where the issue of political differences have been raised in divorce proceedings. Besides the Donaldson case, one other case raised the subject of political differences as grounds for divorce. That was Braun 4 v. Brauni and likewise was decided in the state of Washington. The court held: The trial court apparently and properly disregarded the charges that the appellant was a communist, which certainly would not constitute cruelty per se and be grounds for divorce. 5 The decisions in these two cases seem to be correct by the application of the process of applying rules developed in analogous situations. It is surprising, considering the frenzy with which some hold political convictions, that the question has not been raised previously, and in more detail. Reasonable research indicates that these two cases consist of the law on this aspect of the topic. But, there has developed in our law the principle that religious differences between spouses are not, per se, grounds for divorce. And the close analogy between political differences and religious differences can clearly be seen. The desire for a divorce would stem from incompatibility due to a state of mind of one of the spouses which the other finds impossible to bear. There seems to be no perceptible difference between the basis for divorce on the grounds of ones religious beliefs and because of ones political convictions. 1 31 Wash. 2d 468, 197 P. 2d 442, 443 (1948). r It is not clear from this case to what extent the issue of communism was pressed on the court. This appears to be a minor point in the de. cision. But the language is clear and seems to be more than dictum. DUKE BAR JOURNAL As a general proposition, divorce may be granted for three distinct reasons. The first because of fault between parties. An example would be the ephemeral concept mental cruelty. 0 The second ground would be misfortune. E. g. , impotency. 7 And thirdly, some states allow for separation on the basis of agreement between parties. As has previously been pointed out, the Washington court was of the opinion that the only relevant part of the statute under which political differences could be treated as possible grounds for divorce was that relating to mental cruelty . Therefore, it should be kept in mind that any basis for allowing divorce because of religious or political differences would be on the grounds of mental cruelty, or a corollary thereof. Thus, in considering the total question, it is important to keep constantly in mind the statutory provisions and the scope accorded them by the judiciary, particularly to mental cruelty. Since the Donaldson case held that political differences do not constitute the requisite grounds for divorce, it would be wise to inquire to what extent the courts have held that religious differences were sufficient grounds; and if they are grounds, what restrictions or limitations have been placed thereon. The dictum in Haymond v. HaymondO constitutes a good beginning. In view of the constitutional provision securing to all men the right to worship almighty God according to the dictates of their own conscience and asserting that no human authority ought in any case whatever to control or interfere with the rights of conscience in matters of religion, we do not think that questions as to the doctrines or practices of the Sanctificationists ought to have been permitted to enter to any extent into the trial If her conduct as a wife was such as to furnish her husband grounds for divorce, the acts themselves would be the only proper subjects of investigation, without any regardto the religious convictions that led to them. (Emphasis added) See 27 C. 3. S. , Divorce, Â §24, et seq. , p. 543. See 27 C. S. S. , Divorce, Â §19, p. 540. See 27 C. 3. S. , Divorce, Â §42, p. 581. Haymond v. Haymond, 74 Tex. 414, 12 S. W. 90 (1889). POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS DIFFERENCES The broad doctrine announced in this case (though not original thereto) seems to set the pattern for the courts application of religious differences as grounds for divorce. Smith v. Smith0 serves as an illustration. Here the wife became a member of the sect known as Jehovahs Witnesses, and zealously carried out her faith to the extent of disrupting and destroying the family life. Such actions were held to constitute cruel treatment towards the husband, and the court affirmed a judgment granting a divorce to the husband with custody of the two minor children. The actions of the wife amounted to cruelty, and the naked facts of religious incompatibility was not the moving cause for the divorce. Comparable is Johnson v. Johnson, 2 where the wife had become a Seventh Day Adventist and also joined a sect known as the Holiness People. As a result of her new found beliefs, she refused to have sexual intercourse with her husband until she received word from God that the husband likewise had become converted. 3 She also neglected the household duties, disrupted the family schedule, and was no longer the efficient housewife and mother she had been before; and that it appears all these consequences directly resulted from her active participation and belief in her religion. A divorce was not granted, even under a statute where grounds for divorce was indignities to his person . . . rendering life . . . burdensome. 4 In Krauss v. the husband, a Jew, became converted to Christianity. He devoted himself entirely to the new faith with zest, to the extent that he allowed his business to deteriorate, and stayed away from home at long periods of time 1061 Ariz. 373, 149 P. 2d 683 (1944). u The apropos part of the divorce statute under which the case was considered set out as grounds for divorce, Where the husband or the wife is guilty of excesses, cruel treatment or outrages towards the other Krauss15 whether by the use of personal violence or other means. Â §27-802, Axiz. CODE AnN. , 1939. U 31 Pa. Super. Ct. 53 (1906). 1 See also Prall v. Prall, 58 Fla. 496, 50 So. 867, 26 L. R. A. (N. S. ) 577 (1909). The refusal to have marital relations due to the wifes membership in an organization of which the members were deemed wedded to Christ was not grounds for desertion. 24 Act of Pa. Assembly, June 25, 1895, P. L. 308. 163 La. 218, 111 So. 683 (1927). See annotation, 58 A. L. R. 457. DUKE BAR JOURNAL tudying in various schools. Because of these activities his family was forced to a lower social station in life and compelled to live in less comfortable surroundings. The court said: If the plaintiffs evidence went no further than to show religious differences, that would end the case. The law has not designated and indeed could make diverse religious opinions a legal cause for separation. The fundamental law of the land guarantees freedom of religion and the right to worship according to the dictates of ones own conscience. But the decree was granted because of the conditions arising from the religious differences. 16 A divorce was granted where the wife, believing it to be her duty, insisted on being a Christian Science Healer ;17 where the wife was a Protestant and her husband criticised the church to which she belonged ;18 where the husband was a Roman Catholic and the wife was a Protestant and the two could not get along together ;19 and where the husband was profane to the wife who was a devout churchgoer. 0 A divorce was not granted where one spouse refused to conform to an antenuptial agreement as to the rearing of the children in the Catholic church, 21 and where the husband was a Methodist and the wife a Roman Catholic and they quarreled about his insistence on singing in the choir, 22 among other things. 10 Ibid, 111 So. at 685. The court will look . . . to the nature and character of the treatment itself in determining the question as to whe ther it amounts to such cruelties to warrant a separation. 17 Robinson v. Robinson, 66 N. H. 600, 23 Atl. 362, 15 L. R. A. 121, 49 Am. St. Rep. 632 (1891). is DeCloedt v. DeCloedt, 24 Idaho 277, 133 Pac. 664 (1913). 1 Edmonds v. Edmonds, 193 Iowa 87, 185 N. W. 2 (1921). 20 Payne v. Payne, 4 Humph. 500 (Tenn. 1844). Mirizio v. Mirizio, 242 N. Y. 74, 150 N. E. 605 (1926). See, Carty, The Enforceabilitv of Antenuptial Agreements for the Religious Instruction of Children, 2 DUKE B. J. 70 (Dec. 1951). Meffert v. Meffert, 118 Ark. 582, 177 S. W. 1 (1915); see, also, Lawrence v. Lawrence, 3 Paige 267 (N. Y. 1832). The master properly excluded evidence that the sole difficulty was the refusal of the husband to allow the wife to attend the Presbyterian church. See also, Hill v. Hill, 203 Ky. 182, 261 S. W. 115 (1924). POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS DIFFERENCES It must be strongly emphasized, however, that in the cases where a divorce was granted, the reason was not the religious differences, per se, but because of the resultant difficulties that sprung from such differences. No court has said that a complaint based on the religious differences alone between spouses constitutes adequate grounds for a divorce decree. Each court has, more or less, said the facts of each case must stand on their separate footing and whether or not mental cruelty resulted depends upon the extent and nature of the facts alleged to have constituted the cruelty. The test seems to be: Whether or not mental suffering constitutes mental cruelty depends upon the sound sense of justice of the trial court, and in each case, it is a question 23 of fact to be deduced from the circumstances. And religious differences, per se, do not constitute the requisite mental suffering. Nor is this conclusion altered by a New Jersey decision which denied to a mother custody of two minor children after a divorce decree was granted. 4 It was held that a belief in atheistic communistic doctrines renders a parent unfit to receive custody of her child. 25 It does not appear that the moving cause for the divorce was the atheistic communistic doctrines or that the court considered the religious and political disparity as the focal point for the divorce. The issue of political and religious beliefs arose to determine the character of the mother in determining her claim of custody. From the survey of the cases two conclusions can be postulated: 1. Neither religious nor political differences of themselves between spouses constitute grounds for divorce under the interpretations given the mental cruelty provisions of the statutes. 2. Difficulties flowing from such differences may be grounds for divorce if in themselves such difUngemach v. Ungemach, 61 Cal. App. 2d 29, 142 P. 2d 99 (1943). Eaton v. Eaton, 122 N. J. Eq. 142, 191 At. 839 (1936). See note, 49 HMv. L. REv. 831, where Eaton v. Eaton, supra note 24, Is criticized. 2 M DUKE BAR JOURNAL ficulties constitute mental cruelty, aside from their political or religious relationship. While the Donaldson and Braun cases (the only two considering political differences) did not refer to the apparently strong analogy in the series of religious difference cases, the analogy is implicit in the decisions. The Washington court had asserted in an earlier case that the test for determining whether religious fanaticism constitutes cruel treatment is this: Did the belief cause a disruption or destruction of family life ? 26 Thus, the Washington court adopted the unanimous view by requiring something more than religious differences per se. The decisions in the communism cases followed quite naturally and logically. Whether the reluctance stems from a feeling that religious and political differences by their very nature should not constitute grounds for divorce, that the liberality of divorce has reached its outermost limits, that there may be some constitutional objections to divorces on these bases, the courts still maintain the position that an allegation of religious or political differences in a complaint is mere surplusage and is not to become an issue before the court. Statutes Reasonable arguments may be given for extending divorce on the basis of religious or political differences between spouses. But any such extension must necessarily fall within the confines of the divorce provisions of the statutes. Recall that the Washington court refused a divorce decree because of political differences as either (1) cruel treatment, or (2) personal indignities. Most divorce statutes are set out in general terms, thus it is incumbent upon the judiciary to give them explicit meaning. Political or religious differences as grounds for divorce could only fall into that category generally stated as mental cruelty. Practically all American jurisdictions today recognize some kind of cruelty as grounds for divorce. 7 Extreme cruelty Mertens v. Mertens, 227 P. 2d 724 (Wash. 1951). -7 2 VERNIER, AmEBIcAN I . y LAWs, Â § 66, pp. 24-29 (1931). VERNIER, AmueAc FimiLY LAws, Â § 66, p. 40 (Supplement 1948). POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS DIFFERENCES is recognized in fifteen jurisdictions, means in two states. 3 28 cruel and inhuman treatment in six jurisdictions, 29 mental cruelty in nine states,80 and c ruelty by the use of physical violence or other There are ten jurisdictions that proscribe the standard of indignities as grounds for divorce. 8 2 It is thus impossible to determine any definite standard from the plain wordings of the statute because hey are couched in summary and ambiguous language, which leaves much room for judicial interpolation. For example, while Nevada provides for a standard of extreme 8 cruelty, 3 the divorce rate there is unquestionably high, due in some respects to the liberality of interpretion. 8 4 Furthermore, the earlier belief that physical violence had to accompany the cruelty has declined as a condition precedent to divorce. 35 The conduct amounting to cruelty must be unjustifiable conduct . . . which so grievously wounds the mental feelings of the other . . . as to seriously impair the bodily health, or . . . uch as utterly destroys the legit imate ends and objects of matrimony. 8 This leaves, in effect, a requirement of judicial determination of whether conduct other than physical violence or a reasonable apprehension thereof is sufficient. 37 It is the province of the trial judge to look t o the evidence in light of the circumstances and apply the law to the facts of the case. 38 Thus, 21 California, Delaware, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, North Dakota, New Jersey, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota. 29 Alaska, Indiana, Minnesota, New Mexico, Texas, Wisconsin. California, Colorado, Montana, South Dakota, Utah, Nebraska, Wisconsin, Arizona, Michigan. nArizona, Michigan. Nxv. ComP. LAws 1929, Â § 9460. For a general summarization of mental cruelty statutes see, Ramsey, Mental Cruelty as Grounds for Divorce, 5 AuK. L. REV. 419 (Fall 1951). There is nothing In the terms of the statutes that would seem to require violence as a condition precedent to divorce. Carpenter v. Carpenter, 30 Kan. 712, 2 Pac. 122, 144, 46 Am. Rep. 108 (1883). -1 See supra note 15, Krauss v. Krauss; and supra note 26, Mertens v. Mertens. 09 Stewart v. Stewart, 175 Ind. 412, 94 N. E. 564 (1911). Cruel and Inhuman is . . . a relative term, and of necessity must depend upon circumstances of each particular case. DUKE BAR JOURNAL indifferent aversion and profane language may constitute cruelty. 39 The term indignities while encompassing a broad scope, have been defined rather narrowly by the courts. The cases emphasize a course of conduct evidencing intentional and deliberate neglect, estrangement, and settled hatred. 40 It seems that in those states using this term, the good sense of justice and prudence of the trial courts are relied on to give it meaning. 1 The suggestion, though, that the cases emphasize a course of conduct of an intentional character narrows considerably the relief proffer42 ed. This note is in no sense intended to be a summarization of mental cruelty statutes in the United States. Rather, a brief outline of the scope of the phrase cruelty as used in divorce statutes, with an emphasis on the latitude left the courts in the application of the standards to particular facts and circumstances. The statutes, as a whole, fail to spell out in detail the particular facts requisite as conditions for divorce. The courts are left with seemingly discretionary power to fill in the gaps and give the statutes definite meaning. Therefore, it would seem possible, if circumstances warranted, to draw into the statute the fact of political or religious affiliation with a non-accepted group as a ground for divorce. The justification of this brief outline of cruelty statutes is that if religious and political differences are to be used as a basis of divorce, it must be done so by the osmosis process into the cruelty provisions. The reticent factor is not the statutes, but the reluctance of the judiciary. Thompson v. Thompson, 16 Wash. 2d 78, 132 P. 2d 734 (1943); also Sabot v. Sabot, 97 Wash. 395, 166 Pac. 624 (1917). 10 Ramsey, op cit. supra note 34. See Trenchard v. Trenchard, 245 Ill, 313, 92 N. E. 243 (1910). ,1 Bova v. Bova, 135 S. W. 2d 384 (Mo. App. 1940). It is impossible to lay down any rule that will apply to all cases in determining what indignities are grounds of divorce because they rend er the condition of the injured party intolerable . . . . [E]ach case [is] to be determined according to its own peculiar circumstances. 42 Ramsey, op cit. supra note 34. These decisions do, however, require the conduct complained of to be intentional which as has been seen is not a uniform requirement under the ordinary cruelty statutes. POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS DIFFERENCES Political and Religious Differences as Cruelty It is to be presumed that the matter of divorce is a subjective matter manifested by overt acts provable in court. Those acts which to one spouse would be cruel, reprehensible and inhuman, may be tolerable and inconsequential to another. Thus, the subjective attitude of one of the spouses should be the moving test as to whether or not a divorce should be granted. Ridiculous reasons should be given no credence in court. But when a factor of obvious friction enters a home and make compatibility no longer possible, the courts should listen with sympathetic ear and grant the deserving party relief. Consider the case of Mrs. X. She has been married to her husband for ten years. They have gotten along reasonably well. Mr. X, being dissatisfied with social and political conditions drifts into the Communist party. He becomes an active member thereof. In no way does he lessen his affection for his wife. He still gives her the same living allowance and in all ways acts the same. But Mr. Xs recent affiliation becomes known to the community. Perhaps he is summoned to testify before a congressional hearing investigating labor conditions in Mr. Xs community. Mrs. X finds herself in an embarrassing situation. She feels the Communist party constitutes a threat to our country and is directly responsible for the Korean War. She feels she cannot honestly live with a man who supports such foreign and anti-American doctrine. She applies to the court for a divorce on the grounds of mental cruelty, alleging the cause to be her husbands political affiliations. The decree is denied! Such a decree would be denied in every jurisdiction today, if the law concerning political and religious differences as grounds for divorce remains unaltered. From a reading of the decisions, one can detect two motivating factors which cause the courts hesitancy to allow these elements to constitute sufficient grounds for divorce. The first factor was spelled out in the case of Eaton 8 v. Eaton. 4 There the fitness of the mother as custodian 13Supra note 24. DUKE BAR JOURNAL of the children was challenged because of her atheistic communistic beliefs, and was the reasons for denying her custody of the children. On commenting to this case it was suggested: [T]here would seem to be no such relation between the parents political creed and the childs welfare as would justify an inquiry into the formers beliefs, in view of the attendant risk of prejudice when the issue of Communism is raised. 44 The argument, sub silentio, is that because of an overt distaste for Communism a litigant would not get a fair and impartial judgment before a judicial tribunal. No doubt this would be true in some instances. But it is to be wondered if a judge would be more antipathetical towards a Communist husband than to a drunken or unfaithful one. The trial judges attitude of the conduct of the defendant is not the important factor. (Indeed the attendant risk of judicial prejudice is presented in most every type of controversial litigation. ) The initial factor in a divorce trial is what the spouse seeking the divorce thinks of the other, and whether she actually suffered mental cruelty merely because of a political or religious belief. If such is the case, and such wrong is a legal wrong, then a divorce should be granted. It is quite possible that any trial judge might disfavor a litigant who is a Communist. But if that communism has in fact caused mental cruelty as to justify a severing of marital relations, the political or religious beliefs of the jurist would be inconsequential. To argue that Communism is a disfavored belief and thus should not be a basis for judicial relief overlooks the very essence of the reason for divorce provisions which seem to be grounded in the wise public policy of allowing persons to disband a legal relationship when intolerable circumstances become present in the marital status. And also it indicates a stringent narrow mindedness as to the ability of our courts and jurists. The second reason for viewing with skepticism religious or political differences as grounds for divorce can be found Sura note 25. S, POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS DIFFERENCES 145 in the opinion of Krauss v. Krauss. 45 The fundamental law of the land guarantees freedom of religion and the right to worship according to the dictates of ones own conscience. Impliedly expressed is that the right to political freedom is also guaranteed by the Constitution. Thus, a judicial discrimination based on a religious or political ground would be invalid as violative of the 1st and 14th amendments. If a divorced Communist husband were to complain that he was severed from his spouse because of political beliefs and thus was denied equal protection of the laws, his argument might gain some support. He might feel himself the subject of discrimination not visited on a Socialist, Progressive, Dixiecrat, et al. But again, such an argument overlooks the subjective nature of a divorce proceeding. It is not intended here to delve into constitutional ramifications or to predict a decision involving communism. But Chief Justice Vinsons remarks are apt: The fact that the statute identifies persons by their political affiliations and beliefs, which are circumstances ordinarily irrelevant to permissable subjects of governmental action, does not lead to the conclusion that such circumstances are never 46 relevant. It is submitted that every man has a constitutional right to be a drunkard if he wants to, but this causes no hesitancy on the part of trial courts to grant a divorce if the circumstances warrant. Divorce based on political beliefs would in no way encroach upon the right of a man to believe or worship as he desires. He is not being punished for his opinions or subjected to ridicule. In no respect are punitive measures imposed, but he may be subjected to personal and social sanctions. However, the former may be the case in many divorces based on grounds wholly anterior to the subject of discussion. It would equally be an invasion of rights to force a person to suffer the public indignities concomitant with having a spouse who is a Communist, and not being allowed to gain a divorce. upra note 15. DUKE BAR JOURNAL The marital status, among other things, is a legal relationship. The legislatures in their wisdom have devised standards which may be applied to dissolve the relationship. As has been seen, such standards are ambiguous and mental cruelty has come to embrace many variant circumstances. But the underlying principle would appear to stand as ascertainable. It would mean a c ondition of mind created in one spouse that makes that spouse believe it is no longer possible to live with the other. To say that Communism or Sanctificationism cannot create such an attitude is an idealistic expression of judicial naivetb. 47 Returning to the case of Mrs. X and assuming that she has suffered mental anxiety, it is unfortunate that relief cannot be had in the courts (or to get relief it will be necessary to present further evidence). The barrier to divorcing her husband would seem to be unfair, if the real purpose of divorce statutes is to allow separation when certain conditions manifest themselves in family life. To draw arbitrarily the line here seems to evade the overall intent and purposes of divorce machinery. Mental cruelty could cover the resultant difficulties occasioned because of religious or political differences if the courts were inclined to be more liberal in their interpretation of what mental cruelty really is. It could be expected that such a liberality of interpretation, if indeed such is liberal interpretation, would result in advantage being taken of the latitude given to grant a divorce because of religious or political differences. But such can be expected in most any type of regulation. It cannot truthfully be said that no divorce has ever been given when it was not deserved. We must anticipate only the justice in allowing divorce when actually needed or deserved. It would be unfair to punish those innocent parties for fear of the few who might abuse the privilege, and who might take advantage of this basis for divorce rather than proceed within the proper limits of the law. The law 0 American Communications Association v. Douds, 339 U. S. 382, 391 (1950). This is not a divorce case. ,7 This, in effect, is what the courts have suggested-that the differences cannot create a condition of mind in any case that would justify the granting of a divorce. See, Donaldson v. Donaldson, supra note 1. POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS DIFFERENCES should take recognition of that actual suffering that can occur because of diverse religious and political differences, instead of indulging in speculation of what might happen. Conclusion The picture is not one of hopelessness for a married person with a spouse indulging in religious or political activities repugnant to the other. From a sampling of the opinions it is certain that religious or political differences, per se, will not constitute the requisite grounds for divorce. Yet, if a party can show that some type of collateral suffering has coccurred, incident to the political or religious activities that cause a disruption of the family, or cause pernicious mischief to the family life, or lower the social life of the other spouse, inter alia, a divorce will be granted on the basis of mental cruelty. Therefore, if a wife can show that her husband is a Communist, that she can not get employment because of his activities, that her friends shun her and her relatives ignore her, and, thus, she has become a nervous wreck, most jurisdictions would allow a divorce. The reason for the divorce would be the resulting conditions caused by the political or religious differences, and not the differences in beliefs themselves. Thus the attorney for the complaining spouse, before instituting proceedings, should make certain such conditions exist and the complaint so specifies. Actually, in most instances the only time a divorce would be desired would be when these conditions do exist. And that it could then be had seems clear. In most instances it would be the tangible circumstances resulting from diverse opinions that would make one desire a divorce. But it is when mental cruelty results as a per se consequence of political or religious differences, not contingent on consequential acts, that divorce relief is denied, and where possibly, we argue, it should be offered. But it seems sufficient to say that no complaint in any disparity will now bring relief. The courts have been uniformly cold to the suggestion that such disparity constitutes sufficient grounds for divorce. Nor is there any apparent judicial inclination to alter this attitude.

College Management System free essay sample

Computerized college management system is developed to facilitate the general administration system to manage the various information of student and employees involved in college. So, that college can access accurate information quickly and easily as and when required, thereby improving its operational efficiency and effectiveness. 1. 1Problem Statement In case of manual system they need a lot of time, manpower etc. Here almost all work is computerized. So the accuracy is maintained. College Management System mainly deals with Employee Profile, Payroll Management and Fee collection which can be managed by the Admin. 1. 2 Objectives †¢ Create employee details, achievements and workshop they have conducted †¢ Calculate the employee salary in payroll management †¢ Store the fee details of students and view CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE SURVEY 2. 1 Introduction Today in colleges student details are entered manually. The student details in separate records are tedious task. Referring to all these records and updating is needed. There is a chance for more manual errors. By developing the system we can attain the following facilities. ? Easy to handle and feasible. ? Cost reduction. ? Fast and convenient. 2. 2 Existing system In early days College management system used to manages all the details manually. Which is difficult in conventional management system which maintains the records manually, which slows the operation of storing, retrieving of records from the files, also led to drawbacks like data redundancy and inconsistency. Limitation In early days College management system used to manages all the details manually. 2. 3 Proposed system To overcome the drawbacks faced in conventional systems we are moving towards modern approach in which we automate these processes, for efficient management of organization. By building customized application software, computerized maintenance of these details by the use of this application will provide ease-of-use, efficient store/access to data and prevents data redundancy. In our application we have computerized all the manual system. In this application admin will enter the details of employee and also enter the salary details. Admin enter the details student fee details. CHAPTER 3 REQUIREMENTS SPECIFICATION AND ANALYSIS 3. 1 Software Requirement Specification Introduction A Software Requirements Specification (SRS) is a complete description of the behavior of the system that is to be developed. Use Case technique can be used in order to find functional requirements of the software product. Functional requirements are statements of services the system should provide, how the system should react to particular inputs and how the system should behave in particular situations. The functional requirements also explicitly state what the system should not do. SRS also includes Non-functional (or supplementary) requirements. Non-functional requirements are constraints on the services or functions offered by the system. As system grew more complex, it becomes evident that the goal of the entire system cannot be easily comprehended. Hence the need for the requirement phase arose. ROLE PURPOSE of SRS This SRS describes the software functional non functional requirements. This document is intended to use by the members of the project team that will implement and verify the correct functioning of the system. Unless otherwise noted, all requirements specified here are high priorities and committed. A complete understanding of software requirements is essential to the success of a software development effort. No matter how well designed or well coded. A poorly analyzed and specified program will disappoint the client. Software Requirements Specification (SRS) specifies the general factors like the external interfaces, evolution or growth path of the system, functional requirements, user characteristics and the assumptions, dependencies and risks associated with the system. 3. Requirement Specification 1. Functional Requirements ? Admin will create all employee details with their photos ? List all the details of employee ? Store and Display the workshops conducted by the employee ? Calculate the employee salary and display ? Store and display the fee details of students 3. 2. 2 Non-Functional Requirements †¢ Availability System must be available for the working hours. †¢ Price C ost is less. †¢ Usability – It should be friendly to use and access different pages. User interface should be good. †¢ Scalability- It should support at least 5000 users. Performance- It should be tested and maintained properly. †¢ Reliability- Software reliability brings up the concept of modularity. A package with a high degree of modularity has the capacity to operate in many machine configurations and perhaps across manufacture product lines. 3. 3 Hardware and Software Requirements Software Requirements †¢ Front End: ASP †¢ IDE:Visual studio 2005 †¢ Language:C# †¢ Back End: MS Access †¢ Operating System: Windows XP Hardware Requirements †¢ PROCESSOR : Pentium – IV †¢ RAM : 512MB †¢ HDD:20GB CHAPTER 4 SYSTEM DESIGN AND ANALYSIS 4. 1 System design Design is an important step in the development of large scale system. Design provides us with a blue print to develop a system. Once the software requirements have been analyzed and specified the software design can be expressed using notations such as DFDs, UML notations to describe the proposed solution to the problem . These Notations allows us to understand complex system clearly and serves as blue print for the proposed system. The design activities are of main importance because this activity ultimately affecting the sources of the software implementation and its ease of maintenance are made . hese deceptions have the bearing upon reliability and maintainability of the system. Proper design is the only way to accurately translate the customer’s requirements into finished software or a system. Software design generally involve two steps 1. Preliminary Design 2. Detail Design The preliminary design is used to translate the problem specifications into a graphical system rep resentation. The Detailed design is concerned with breaking the whole solution into number of modules. This process of division of system into many sub modules reduces the complexity of problem solving. . 2 Modules and Description College Management System mainly deals with Employee Profile, Payroll Management and Fee collection which can be managed by the Admin. 4. 2. 1 Modules: 1. Employee Profile 2. Payroll Management 3. Fee collection 2. Description: 1. Employee Profile Admin will enter the details of employee profile. Employee Profile contains the all details of employee with their profile photo, it is also contains the achievements of employee and workshops they have conducted. Admin also search the details of employee. 2. Payroll Management Payroll Management calculates employee salary. 3. Fee collection Fee collection tracks all the fee details of a student from the day one to the end of his course. 4. 3 Usecase Modeling Use Case Diagrams represents the functionality of the system from a user’s point view. They define the boundaries of the system. [pic] Fig 4. 3. 1 4. 4 Sequence Diagram The sequence diagram represents the system’s behavior in terms of interactions among a set of objects. They are used to identify the objectives in the application and implementation domain. Fig 4. 4. 1 [pic] 4. 5 Activity Diagram Activity diagram is another important diagram in UML to describe dynamic aspects of the system. It is basically a flow chart to represent the flow form one activity to another activity. The activity can be described as an operation of the system. So the control flow is drawn from one operation to another. This flow can be sequential, branched or concurrent. Activity diagrams deals with all type of flow control by using different elements like fork, join etc. Purpose: The basic purposes of activity diagrams are similar to other four diagrams. It captures the dynamic behavior of the system. Other four diagrams are used to show the message flow from one object to another but activity diagram is used to show message flow from one activity to another. Activity is a particular operation of the system. Activity diagrams are not only used for visualizing dynamic nature of a system but they are also used to construct the executable system by using forward and reverse engineering techniques. The only missing thing in activity diagram is the message part. It does not show any message flow from one activity to another. Activity diagram is some time considered as the flow chart. Although the diagrams looks like a flow chart but it is not. It shows different flow like parallel, branched, concurrent and single. †¢ Draw the activity flow of a system. †¢ Describe the sequence from one activity to another. †¢ Describe the parallel, branched and concurrent flow of the system. [pic] Fig 4. 5. 1 4. 6 Data flow diagram Designing with the Data Flow Diagrams involves creating a model of the system. The entities and attributes are a model, of the states of the system. Processes model the rules of a System. The stimuli and response are modeled by Data Flows. All of these models are combined into one graphic model called a Data Flow Diagram. DFD’s have a notation for each of the components of the system. They also have a notation for representing different levels in a hierarchy of detailed used to describe the system. This notation makes it possible to represent an overall view of a large complex system and a detailed view of a part of a system using the same notation. Parts of the system can be isolated into independent sub-system. [pic] Fig 4. 6. 1 CHAPTER 5 IMPLEMENTATION 5. 1 Software tools used 5. 1. 1 ASP What is ASP? ASP stands for Active Server Pages. Microsoft introduced Active Server Pages inDecember 1996, beginning with Version 3. 0. Microsoft officially defines ASP as:â€Å"Active Server Pages is an open, compile-free application environment in which you can combine HTML, scripts, and reusable ActiveX server components to create dynamic and powerful Web-based business solutions. Active Server pages enables server side scripting for IIS with native support for both VBScript and Jscript. † In other words, ASP is a Microsoft technology that enables you to create dynamic web sites with the help of server side script, such as VBScript and Jscript. ASP technology is supported on all Microsoft Web servers that are freely available. What is an ASP file? An ASP file is quite like an HTML file. It contains text, HTML tags and scripts, which are executed on the server. The two widely used scripting languages for an ASP page are VBScript and JScript. VBScript is pretty much like Visual Basic, whereas Jscript is the Microsoft’s version of JavaScript. However, VBScript is the default scripting language for ASP (3). Besides these two scripting languages, you can use other scripting language with ASP as long as you have an ActiveX scripting engine for the language installed, such as PerlScript. The difference between an HTML file and an ASP file is that an ASP file has the â€Å". asp† extension. Furthermore, script delimiters for HTML tags and ASP code are also different. A script delimiter is a character that marks the starting and ending of a unit. HTML tags begins with lesser than () brackets, whereas ASP script typically starts with . In between the delimiters are the server-side scripts. ASP includes five build-in objects:  · Request – to get information from the user that is passed along with an HTTP request  · Response – to output data to the requesting client Server – to control the Internet Information Server  · Session – to store variables associated with a given user session  · Application – to store information that remain active for the lifetime of an application, such as a page counter. What are its advantages? 1. Dynamic web page – Since ASP supports scripting languages, which run on the web server, yo ur web page can be dynamically created. For example, you can create your web page so as to greeting each user when they log into your page differently. 2. Browser independent – ASP is browser independent because all the scripting code runs on the server. The browser only gets the results from the server in a standard HTML page. 3. Database Access – One of the greatest assets of ASP is database connectivity. ASP enables you to easily build rich database functionality into your web site, such as form processing. 4. Building-in objects – The five built-in objects that come with ASP facilitate Web application development. For example, you can use Request object to retrieve browser request information. 5. Free availability – Yes, it’s free. You can download web server (IIS or PWS) for free from Microsoft’s web site. You don’t even have to have any special tool to write an ASP file. In other words, you can simply use any text editor, like NotePad. 5. 1. 2 C# Language C# programs run on the . NET Framework, an integral component of Windows that includes a virtual execution system called the common language runtime (CLR) and a unified set of class libraries. The CLR is Microsofts commercial implementation of the common language infrastructure (CLI), an international standard that is the basis for creating execution and development environments in which languages and libraries work together seamlessly. Source code written in C# is compiled into an intermediate language (IL) that conforms to the CLI specification. The IL code, along with resources such as bitmaps and strings, is stored on disk in an executable file called an assembly, typically with an extension of . exe or . dll. An assembly contains a manifest that provides information on the assemblys types, version, culture, and security requirements. When the C# program is executed, the assembly is loaded into the CLR, which might take various actions based on the information in the manifest. Then, if the security requirements are met, the CLR performs just in time (JIT) compilation to convert the IL code into native machine instructions. The CLR also provides other services related to automatic garbage collection, exception handling, and resource management. Code that is executed by the CLR is sometimes referred to as managed code, in contrast to unmanaged code which is compiled into native machine language that targets a specific system. The following diagram illustrates the compile-time and run time relationships of C# source code files, the base class libraries, assemblies, and the CLR. pic] Language interoperability is a key feature of the . NET Framework. Because the IL code produced by the C# compiler conforms to the Common Type Specification (CTS), IL code generated from C# can interact with code that was generated from the . NET versions of Visual Basic, Visual C++, Visual J#, or any of more than 20 other CTS-compliant languages. A single assembly may contain mul tiple modules written in different . NET languages, and the types can reference each other just as if they were written in the same language. In addition to the run time services, the . NET Framework also includes an extensive library of over 4000 classes organized into namespaces that provide a wide variety of useful functionality for everything from file input and output to string manipulation to XML parsing, to Windows Forms controls. The typical C# application uses the . NET Framework class library extensively to handle common plumbing chores. 5. 1. 3 MS Access Microsoft Office Access, previously known as Microsoft Access, is a database management system from Microsoft that combines the relational Microsoft Jet Database Engine with a graphical user interface and software-development tools. MS Access stores data in its own format based on the Access Jet Database Engine. It can also import or link directly to data stored in other applications and databases. Software developers and data architects can use Microsoft Access to develop application software, and power users can use it to build software applications. Like other Office applications, Access is supported by Visual Basic for Applications, an object-oriented programming language that can reference a variety of objects including DAO (Data Access Objects), ActiveX Data Objects, and many other ActiveX components. Visual objects used in forms and reports expose their methods and properties in the VBA programming environment, and VBA code modules may declare and call Windows operating-system functions. USES: ? In addition to using its own database storage file, Microsoft Access may also be used as the front-end with other products as the back-end tables, such as Microsoft SQL Server ? Access tables support a variety of standard field types, indices, and referential integrity. Access also includes a query interface, forms to display and enter data, and reports for printing. The number of simultaneous users that can be supported depends on the amount of data, the tasks being performed, level of use, and application design. FEATURES ? Users can create tables, queries, forms and reports, and connect them together with macros. ? The original concept of Access was for end users to be able to access data from any source. ? Microsoft Access offers parameterized queries. These queries and Access tables can be referenced from other programs like VB6 and . NET through DAO or ADO. From Microsoft Access, VBA can reference parameterized stored procedures via ADO. . 1. 4 Microsoft Visual Studio IDE Microsoft Visual Studio is an integrated development environment (IDE) from Microsoft. It is used to develop console and graphical user interface applications along with Windows Forms applications, web sites, web applications, and web services in both native code together with managed code for all platforms supported by Microsoft Windows, Windows Mobile, Windows CE, . NET Framework, . NET Compact Framework and Microsoft Silverlight. Visual Studio includes a code editor supporting IntelliSense as well as code refactoring. The integrated debugger works both as a source-level debugger and a machine-level debugger. Other built-in tools include a forms designer for building GUI applications, web designer, class designer, and database schema designer. It accepts plug-ins that enhance the functionality at almost every level—including adding support for source-control systems (like Subversion and Visual SourceSafe) and adding new toolsets like editors and visual designers for domain-specific languages or toolsets for other aspects of the software development lifecycle (like the Team Foundation Server client: Team Explorer). It provides a way to check the functionality of components, sub assemblies, assemblies and /or a finished product. It is a process of exercising software with the intent of ensuring that the software system needs its requirements and user expectations and doesn’t fall in an unacceptable manner. 6. 2 Functional Testing Functional tests provide systematic demonstrations that functions tested are available as specified by the business and technical requirements, system documentation, and user manuals. †¢ Functional testing is centered on the following items: †¢ Valid messages: Identified classes of valid messages must be accepted. Invalid messages: Identified classes of invalid messages must be rejected. †¢ Functions: Identified functions must be exercised. †¢ Output: Identified classes of application outputs must be exercised. †¢ Systems/Procedures: Interfacing systems or procedures must be invoked. 6. 3 Unit Testing In computer programming, unit testing is a method by which individual units of source code, sets of one or more computer program modules together with associated control data, usage procedures, and operating procedures, are tested to determine if they are fit for use. Intuitively, one can view a unit as the smallest testable part of an application. The goal of unit testing is to isolate each part of the program and show that the individual parts are correct. 6. 4 Integration Testing Software integration testing is the incremental integration testing of two or more integrated software components on a single platform to produce failures caused by interface defects. Integration testing (sometimes called Integration and Testing, abbreviated IT) is the phase in software testing in which individual software modules are combined and tested as a group. It occurs after unit testing and before validation testing. Integration testing takes as its input modules that have been unit tested, groups them in larger aggregates, applies tests defined in an integration test plan to those aggregates, and delivers as its output the integrated system ready for system testing. 6. 5 System Testing 6. 5. 1 Verification Verification is intended to check that a product, service, or system meets a set of initial design requirements, specifications, and regulations. In the development phase, verification procedures involve performing special tests to model or simulate a portion, or the entirety, of a product, service or system, then performing a review or analysis of the modeling results. In the post-development phase, verification procedures involve regularly repeating tests devised specifically to ensure that the product, service, or system continues to meet the initial design requirements, specifications, and regulations as time progresses. citation needed] It is a process that is used to evaluate whether a product, service, or system complies with regulations, specifications, or conditions imposed at the start of a development phase. Verification can be in development, scale-up, or production. This is often an internal process. 6. 5. 2 Validation Validation is intended to check that development and verification procedures for a product, service, or system (or portion thereof, or set thereof) result in a product, service, or system (or portio n thereof, or set thereof) that meets initial requirements, specifications, and regulations. For a new development flow or verification flow, validation procedures may involve modeling either flow and using simulations to predict faults or gaps that might lead to invalid or incomplete verification or development of a product, service, or system (or portion thereof, or set thereof). A set of validation requirements, specifications, and regulations may then be used as a basis for qualifying a development flow or verification flow for a product, service, or system (or portion thereof, or set thereof). Additional validation procedures also include those that are designed specifically to ensure that modifications made to an existing qualified development flow or verification flow will have the effect of producing a product, service, or system (or portion thereof, or set thereof) that meets the initial design requirements, specifications, and regulations; these validations help to keep the flow qualified. [citation needed] It is a process of establishing evidence that provides a high degree of assurance that a product, service, or system accomplishes its intended requirements. . 5. 3 White-Box Testing White-box testing (also known as clear box testing, glass box testing, transparent box testing, and structural testing) is a method of testing software that tests internal structures or workings of an application, as opposed to its functionality (i. e. black-box testing). In white-box testing an internal perspective of the system, as well as programming skills, are used to design test c ases. The tester chooses inputs to exercise paths through the code and determine the appropriate outputs. This is analogous to testing nodes in a circuit.

Thinking, Language, And Intelligence Essays - Sociolinguistics

Thinking, Language, And Intelligence Kristine Thornton Southern Technical College Dr. Andrea Goldstein We are surrounded by language during nearly every waking moment of our lives. We use language to communicate our thoughts and feelings, to connect with others and identify with our culture, and to understand the world around us. And for many people, this rich linguistic environment involves not just one language but two or more. In fact, the majority of the world's p opulation is bilingual or multilingual. In a survey conducted by the European Commission in 2006, 56 percent of respondents reported being able to speak in a language other than their mother tongue. In many countries that percentage is even higherfor inst ance, 99 percent of Luxembourgers and 95 percent of Latvians speak more than one language. Even in the United States, which is widely considered to be monolingual, one-fifth of those over the age of five reported speaking a language other than English at h ome in 2007, an increase of 140 percent since 1980. Millions of Americans use a language other than En glish in their everyday lives outside of the home, when they are at work or in the classroom. Europe and the United States are not alone, either. The Ass ociated Press reports that up to 66 percent of the world's children are raised bilingual. Over the past few decades, technological advances have allowed researchers to peer deeper into the brain to investigate how bilingualism interacts with and changes th e cognitive and neurological systems. Research has overwhelmingly shown that when a bilingual person uses one language, the other is active at the same time. When a person hears a word, he or she doesn't hear the entire word all at once: the sounds arrive in sequential order. Long before the word is finished, the brain's language system begins to guess what that word might be by activating lots of words that match the signal. If you hear "can," you will likely activate words like "candy" and "candle" as we ll, at least during the earlier stages of word recognition. For bilingual people, this activation is not limited to a single language; auditory input activates corresponding words regardless of the language to which they belong. Some of the most compellin g evidence for language co-activation comes from studying eye movements. We tend to look at things that we are thinking, talking, or hearing about. A Russian-English bilingual person asked to "pick up a marker" from a set of objects would look more at a s tamp than someone who doesn't know Russian, because the Russian word for "stamp," " marka ," sounds like the English word he or she heard, "marker." In cases like this, language co-activation occurs because what the listener hears could map onto words in eit her language. Furthermore, language co-activation is so automatic that people consider words in both languages even without overt similarity. For example, when Chinese-English bilingual people judge how alike two English words are in meaning, their brain r esponses are affected by whether or not the Chinese translations of those words are written similarly. Even though the task does not require the bilingual people to engage their Chin ese, they do so anyway. Having to deal with this persistent linguistic co mpetition can result in language difficulties. For instance, knowing more than one language can cause speakers to name pictures more slowly and can increase tip-of-the-tongue states (where you're unable to fully conjure a word, but can remember specific de tails about it, like what letter it starts with). As a result, the constant juggling of two languages creates a need to control how much a person accesses a language at any given time. From a communicative standpoint, this is an important skill understand ing a message in one language can be difficult if your other language always interferes. Likewise, if a bilingual person frequently switches between languages when speaking, it can confuse the listener, especially if that listener knows only one of the spe aker's languages. To maintain the relative balance between two languages, the bilingual brain relies on executive functions, a regulatory system of general cognitive abilities that includes processes such as attention and inhibition.

A Non-Violent Revolution essays

A Non-Violent Revolution essays Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, later to be known as, Mahatma Gandhi, or great soul, was born in 1869, a time of political struggle and British rule, to a high caste Indian family. In 1888, at the mere age of 19, Gandhi set sail for England, where he had decided to pursue a career in law (www.sscnet.ucla.edu). After a year of unsuccessful law practice, Gandhi traveled to South Africa to join a legal company. Gandhi was shocked when he encountered first hand the extent of the European racism towards the Indians when he was thrown out of a first-class train compartment, because of his skin color, though he had, in his possession, a first-class ticket.( This incident only fueled his strive for independence and respect for the Indian people. Later, Gandhi would come to be known as one of the most influential men of all time, inspiring not only his own people, but also changing politics and international relations forever. Gandhis influence and struggles based on revolutionary ideas of non -violent protests and resistance not only changed Indias, as well as many other countrys, policies and standard treatment towards lower-class citizens, but also influenced countless people to come. Gandhi first began using non violent resistance in South Africa and soon emerged as great the leader of the South African Indian community. His theories and practice of peaceful resistance (Satygraha) were revolutionary and soon had an enormous following. (www.sscnet.ucla.edu) Although Gandhis disciples mainly included oppressed Indians, tired of their treatment from the British, whom at the time controlled much of the prosperous country, their power would not be denied. At the time, Indians could not own land, engage in trade, and were forced to pay high taxes to live in their native land. In many places, Indians werent even allowed to vote. In 1915, Gandhi returned from South Africa to his homeland, India. At t...

Sexual Assault in Prison Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Sexual Assault in Prison - Research Paper Example Prison violence includes rape, gang fights, duty manipulation and death as a resultant. The paper will be a focus on rape as a form of prison violence. Rape cases are familiar in all genders. However, masculine prisons record the highest number of prison rape victims. Rape is defined as the act by which sexual relations are obtained through physical force, threats or intimidation. The rate of prison rape cases have grown significantly in recent years. The issue has become sensitive that special groups have been given the mandate to find lasting solutions. Sexual violence in male prisons is a very sensitive issue when being tackled within the prison. Due to fear of being raped, victims and fellow prisoners choose not to report cases of rape. It is found that under assurance of secrecy and security, prisoners give out information on their sexual experiences while in prison, (Smith, pp. 97). For instance, there was a prisoner interview held in the Philadelphia correctional facilities. I n the exercise, 3,304 prisoners were interviewed. 156 prisoners interviewed admitted to be victims of sexual violence. This gives about 4.7% of the prisoners in the institution. This can lead to an assumption that the rape cases are no different for the past prisoners in the institution. ... In another report, a prison in Nebraska has the highest rate of staff-inmate sexual abuse of 12.2%. September 4th 2003: The day when the National Prison Rape Elimination Commission was founded under the Prison rape elimination act of 2003. The commission was issued with the mandate of the detection, analyzing and finding solutions to reduce prison sexual abuse. With the commission, abused prisoners are able to step up and report these cases of abuse. Rather than having the feeling of justice being done, it also gives them psychological confidence. Boosting psychological confidence of a sexual victim is the first way to recovery and forgiveness. Human right groups also influence greatly on the cases of prison abuse. These agencies may force a prison reshuffle and provision of medical care that the victims must be provided with. Agencies also push for prison staff alignment. With a proper and just prison staff, the welfare of prisons will be in good hands. This will also reduce the num ber of staff-inmate abuse. To curb this menace, a proper program and design should be established and implemented. The design should be able to rattle all stakeholders in prison facilities. The program should cover from top shelf management, to the bottom prison guard and warden. The design should be in a way that inmate-staff manipulation will be stopped. The design should mostly focus on prison management. With a proper management, there will be a proper staff and, hence, a proper open environment in the prisons. Most of all, the design should be able to give sexual abuse victims the room to report the incidences. After the report has been filed, the design should be able to find the appropriate way to

Random sampling in hypothesis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Random sampling in hypothesis - Essay Example Therefore, it is important to use the random sample to enable the ease of making the comparison in the null hypothesis of a population. Random sampling receives support from probability mathematics whose facts have been proved beyond doubt. Convenience sample does not use probability in arriving at the final sample. It is not suitable for assessing a population. Due to its ‘non-probability’ nature, convenience sampling is not suitable for studying the relationship between a population and sample. Random sampling gives a true representation of the population because it is not biased to any side. The use of Convenience samples makes researchers choose samples that they prefer but not a true representation of a population (Duttalo, 123). It gives a conclusion that is not true about the population. In statistics, bias should not be given to any part of a population. A true hypothesis should not have the bias. For example, in a data that contains a population of one hundred, it is wrong to select the first ten elements to represent the population. The best representative of the population should involve random sampling. Random sampling requires that one chooses any ten elements from the population without taking any consideration to the position.

ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY - Research Paper Example The proposed research will examine the use of assistive technology in elementary schools, seeking to establish the merits and demerits of such use. Through the research, policymakers, individuals, and the community as a whole will be empowered to make informed decisions on whether to use assistive technology. The expected findings are that the advantages of using assistive technology are more than the disadvantages, and the paper recommends the review of education policies and curriculum to enable more children with disabilities to use assistive devices in learning institutions. Introduction Assistive technology is any product, equipment, or technology that is adapted or specially designed to improve the function of an individual with disability. The use of such technology in the education sector has been on the increase in the recent past, particularly due to the regular advancements in technology experienced in the 21st century. Learners with disabilities are enabled to access curriculum material using the help of assistive technology in reading, hearing, and walking, and as such, their participation in learning is greatly enhanced. However, several barriers to the use of assistive technology in classroom settings have been identified over time, as well as challenges hampering the effectiveness of the technology in learning. These barriers include inadequate funding, lack of knowledge and skills to promote the use of assistive technology, and negative attitudes among learners with disabilities and caregivers towards the use of assistive equipment. Although challenges a nd limitations to widespread use of assistive technology among learners with disabilities abound, assistive technology has many benefits, both to individual users and to the community as a whole. It is therefore necessary to sensitize people on the advantages surrounding the use of assistive technology, and to make them aware of the disadvantages associated with such use, both in the short term and in the long term. Increasing community awareness on the advantages and disadvantages of assistive technology would enable policymakers, individuals, and the larger community to make informed decisions related to assistive technology. Statement of the problem Over time, there has been increasing use of assistive technology to enhance learning among people with disabilities. Studies related to this use have largely focused on the barriers, challenges, and limitations of the practice in the community, with very few examining the advantages and disadvantages of assistive technology. As such, there is need for research to be undertaken with the aim of establishing the merits and demerits of using assistive technology. This paper seeks to propose a study of the advantages and disadvantages of assistive technology, aimed at providing information to individuals, policymakers, and interested individuals in the community on the use of the technology. The study will enable people to make decisions on the use of assistive technology with accurate and reliable information on the advantages and disadvantages of such usage, and will provide both short term and long-term effects of assistive technology. In addition, the study will consider the impacts of assistive technology on the individual user, the caregivers, and the community in which this technology is used, thus providing exhaustive information on the advantages and disadvantages of the technology to all affected parties in the community. Literature review Stumbo, Martin, and Hedrick (2009) observe that assistive technol

Risk Management in Business: A Case Study

Risk Management in Business: A Case Study INTRODUCTION SITUATION Every day, there is the chance that some sort of business interruption, crisis, disaster, or emergency will occur. Anything that prevents access to key processes and activities can be defined as a disaster. Companies can experience many different threats to their mission critical systems such as fires, floods, lightning storms and humidity to disgruntled employees, hackers, human error, power failures and viruses. A disaster can happen at any time and it is vital to be prepared in the event that one occurs. NEED To be prepared for a business interruption, the organization must have a carefully crafted and comprehensive plan that describes risks, impacts, and step-by-step recovery strategies for critical business processes in various disaster and emergency scenarios. Without a plan, the team will be flying blind when an interruption occurs. The plan provides the necessary tools to mitigate interruptions and resume operations as quickly as possible, greatly facilitating decision-making and taking action when there is scant time and stress levels are elevated. CHALLENGE Using the information in the risk assessment to create effective recovery strategies for critical processes in all departments, incorporating these strategies into a comprehensive business continuity plan, and encouraging ownership of the plan across the organization, and ultimately, achieving the highest resiliency possible with limited resources. SOLUTION Create the recovery strategies department-by-department, process-by-process. This allows each department to focus on strategies specifically relevant to their critical processes without extraneous information from other departments. Do the same for your business continuity plan, writing smaller plans by department. Also, use a template to document your recovery strategies to ensure process consistency across the organization. Finally, have plans reviewed and approved by department heads and distributed to all employees to encourage ownership and pride in the plan. RESULT Each department in the organization will have a comprehensive action plan for business continuity outlining the steps to take to recover vital processes in various emergency scenarios. All employees will have their own copy of the plan, ready to use immediately when a disruption occurs. Employees will take ownership of the organizations business continuity effort and this effort will be further ingrained in the organizations corporate culture. CHOCOLATE MANUFACTURING COMPANY AN OVERVIEW The Chocolate Company since inception in 1990 has been largely responsible for satisfying the countrys demand for Chocolates and Sugar Confectionery. Situated at Rusayl Industrial Estates in Muscat, Sultanate of Oman, the plant has various lines producing a wide range of confectionery like Éclairs, Toffees, Fudges, Caramels, Hard Boiled Candy and Enrobed Chocolates. These products are available in attractive packaging and premium Gift Boxes making them ideal for gifting as well as for own consumption. Most of the packaging in the Gift Pack segment has been carefully selected to ensure its enduring utility, thereby giving our valued customers an added benefit. The confectionery is produced by experienced personnel under stringent quality control and hygiene standards. State-of-the-art manufacturing facilities ensure products of international quality. The company in its relentless pursuit of quality obtained HACCP Certification in April, 2004. The Company, through its uncompromising stand on quality and competitive pricing, has successfully penetrated countries all over the Gulf, the African continent, Asia, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa, USA and the UK. The principal business processes involved are Procurement of raw materials and consumables. Production and Quality control. Distribution and marketing. Inventory Management. Pricing and cost control. Feedback from consumers and redressal systems. Publicity and promotional activities. Recruitment and HR. Finance Administration. Corporate communications and public relations. Legal and secretarial matters. Investor relations. Maintenance of equipment and other assets. Capital expenditure for equipment and other purposes. IT systems and telecommunications. Transportation and Logistics. Today, manufacturing sector companies like chocolate manufacturing operates in increasingly complex, competitive and global markets. The ability to manage risks across geographies, products, assets, customer segments and functional departments is of paramount importance. The inability to manage these risks can cause irreparable damages. Chocolate company will always face the likelihood of being impacted by uncertain or adverse future events. These uncertainties will have an impact on a companys ability to generate capital and shareholders returns. The company Board expects that management will not only look at where the company may be exposed to risk, but also how these risks can be managed to influence favorable business outcomes. RISK AND RISK MANAGEMENT Risk Management Methodology followed by the chocolate company The risk management methodology at the chocolate company encompass the scope of risks to be managed, the process/systems and procedures to manage risk and the roles and responsibilities of individuals involved in risk management. The framework is comprehensive enough to capture all risks that the company is exposed to and have flexibility to accommodate any change in business activities. The chocolate companys effective risk management methodology includes Risk Policy framework. Identification of risks. Measurement and Impact Assessment. Management of the risks. Monitoring Reporting and Control. A. Risk Policy Framework The following fundamental principles should be considered by the company to develop and implement a proactive risk management program and help them to identify any potential areas of concern: Acceptance of a risk management framework: A formal risk management framework is needed at this company, to guide the integration of risk management into the companys day to day operations. Corporate governance and risk: At this company,corporate governance is the prime responsibility of the Board of Directors and the General Manager. It combines legal duties with responsibilities to improve and monitor the performance of the company. Establish the risk response strategy: Following the agreement on the risk assessment rankings in all functional departments, management action will need to be taken to reduce the risk levels where they have been deemed unacceptably high or alternatively remove constraints where they are preventing the business from pursuing opportunities. Assigning responsibility for risk management change process: It is important for the company to ensure that the daily operation of the business supports this strategy and that the staff understands the proposed changes. Re-sourcing: Risk management is the responsibility of all levels of management. Communication and training: Implementing a communication and training program is important to introduce the concept of risk management. Monitoring of risk management process: To ensure that risk responses gaps are filled and that the risk responses continue to operate effectively and remain appropriate in light of changing conditions. B. Identification of Various Risks of The Company While drafting this Risk management Policy, the primary risk exposures at the company X that are identified is provided below, which are inclusive but not exhaustive and it will be the responsibility of the Risk Management Committee to review these on a periodic basis. I. Market Risks It is the risk that the value of the company will be adversely affected by movements in market rates or prices, foreign exchange rates, national global fluctuations, credit spreads and/or commodity prices resulting in a loss to earnings and capital. The market risks identified at this chocolate company are as follows Government Policy risks Product Risks Environmental risks Volatility of export orders Price Competition in the local export market Currency fluctuation for export orders II. Operational Risks The operational risks identified at chocolate company are as follows Fire Allied Risks Machinery breakdown/ obsolescence Volatility of Raw material Packing material prices Quality/ Ageing risks of Raw material/ Packing material Delivery risk of Suppliers Loss of data information- IT security Manpower Availability risks Accidents Inventory carrying risk III. Reputation Risks These are risks arising from negative public opinion resulting from failures of process, strategy or corporate governance. The Reputation risks identified at this company are as follows Contamination-hygiene Product expiry/Shelf life Corporate Governance IV. Credit Risks Non receipt of receivables or delay in receipts is the credit risks attributable to the company. These may be identified as Payment risk from customers-local Payment risk from Customers- export Security from customers Advance to Suppliers V. Liquidity Risks The possibility is that the company will be unable to fund present and future financial obligations. These may be identified as Cash flow working capital management CAPEX decisions Cost overruns VI. Strategic Risks Risk those are arising from adverse business decisions or the improper implementation of such decisions. These may be identified as follows Business Plan forecasts. Attrition of key people. C. Risk Prioritizing and Impact Assessment Risk Prioritizing To adequately capture institutions risk exposure, risk measurement should represent aggregate exposure of the company to both risk type and business line and encompass short run as well as long run impact on it. To the maximum possible extent the company should establish systems / models that quantify their risk profile. However, in some risk categories, quantification is quite difficult and complex. Wherever it is not possible to quantify risks, qualitative measures should be adopted to capture those risks. The company should utilize a Risk Matrix to evaluate the level of risks which are identified in the Company. The Risk Matrix is formed by assessing the probability of the risk, the severity of the risk, and the quality of control that exists specific to those risks. Scoring is attributed for each the three parameters namely probability, severity and Internal control. The aggregate score is computed and ranking of the risks is ascertained. The probability of the impact occurring is arranged ranging from low to high. Scores assigned as 4 for High, 2 for medium and 1 for low. Severity of the Risk is assessed as High, Medium and low based on the experience and normal prudence. Scores assigned as 4 for High, 2 for medium and 1 for low. Quality of Internal control is also similarly categorized as high, medium and low. The scores assigned in the reverse order since the better the existing control the lower is the impact and vice-versa. So scores here can be assigned as 4 for Low, 2 for Medium and 1 for High. Aggregate Score was thereafter computed after adding the individual scores for each parameter. Companys Risk Matrix using the above method is shown in Annexure I ii. Impact Assessment The company being a medium scale manufacturing unit should focus on the manageable risks like Operational risks, Liquidity risks and Strategic risks. Market risks, Credit risks and Reputation risks though an integral part of risk management may not need detailed impact assessment at this stage unless the probability of such factors seem to be out of proportions in time to come. Impact assessment of the Operational risks, liquidity risks and strategic risks at the company termed herein as Manageable risks, can be assessed as follows Risk associated with any event has two components, loss severity and loss probability. Loss, in itself consists of expected and unexpected components. The unexpected loss component could be severe or catastrophic. Usually, expected losses are adjusted for in pricing or in reserve allocation. Unexpected losses require capital allocation. Given that operational risk, liquidity and strategic risk events are most often subject to internal control, any manageable risk system that passively measures these risks would clearly be inadequate. Once risk factors are identified as likely causes of the Risk losses, mitigating steps need to be initiated. While quantification would indicate risk magnitude and capital charges, it may not by itself suggest mitigating steps. This makes it advisable for the company to combine qualitative and quantitative approaches to manageable Risk. The broad steps involved here would be: determine the types of operational losses that could occur identify the causal risk factors estimate the size and likelihood of losses Mitigate associated risks Qualitative Approaches Qualitative approaches involve Audits, Self-assessments Expert / collective judgment. Critical Self-Assessment: (CSA): This is one of the common qualitative bottom-up approaches where line managers of the company can critically analyze their business processes given specific scenarios to identify potential risks and gaps in their risk management processes. Tools like questionnaires, checklists and workshops are used to help the managers analyze the risk profile of their business units. The key idea behind this method is that businesses managers of this company are in the best position identify and manage the Operational Risks pertaining to their business units. Risk Audit Employing the services of external (or internal) auditors to review the business processes of a business unit is another approach. This process not only helps identify risks but also helps put in place the oversight organization for the manageable risks. Key Risk Indicators (KRI) Using the KRI approach the company can blend the qualitative and quantitative aspects of Operational Risk management. Factors that have predictive value and that can be easily measured with minimum time lag can serve as risk indicators. Some risk indicators inherently carry risk related information, for instance, indicators like sales volumes, order size, etc. Others are indirect indicators, for instance, production budgets, production lifecycle, performance appraisal etc. Key indicators are identified from several potential factors and are tracked over time. The predictive capabilities of the indicators are tested through regression analysis on historical loss data and indicator measurements. Based on such analysis, the set of indicators of the company being tracked can be modified suitably. Over time, as the model gets refined, the set of indicators can provide early warning signals for operational losses. D. Management of the risks Managing Market Risks: The chocolate company may be exposed to Market Risk in variety of ways as described earlier such as environmental issues, export orders, future contracts, Price competition, customer profile and marine transportation risks. Besides, market risk may also arise from activities categorized as off-balance sheet item. Government Policy Risks: Change in government policies, tax rates, introduction of new tax regimes, reduction or abolition of incentives etc carry risk to any entity in terms of its costing and pricing. In the short and medium term the company does not perceive any major risk in this segment, however the management has to be aware of any forthcoming changes that the government might envisage. Should there be any drastic change in Government policies that would affect its profitability especially in case of exports; the Company has contingency plans for producing at an alternative location outside Oman. Product Risks: Since the product is that of food item the company has to be 100% careful to maintain the product quality, product specification, pack sizes, contents in each pack etc. Producing lesser or poor quality products and not as per specification is a risk which company X needs to constantly be aware off. To mitigate such risks the company X should develop a well defined production policy develop a well defined Quality control and checks policy develop a well defined storage and Distribution policy Environmental risks: The company does not use and generate hazardous substances in its manufacturing operations. Hence the chances that the company may in future are subject to liabilities relating to the investigation and clean-up of contaminated areas is negligible. However the company should have a laid down policy of disposal of waste at pre-designed disposal points mainly for the rejected, expired and damaged items of raw materials, finished products and packing materials. Volatility of export orders: Some customers and sectors served by the company are directly dependent on general economic development, competition and frequent fluctuations in demand for their products. The prices for these products are, in part, dependent on the prevailing relationship between supply and demand. Possible price fluctuations are therefore apt to have a direct influence on each customers working capital management decisions, with subsequent influence on the customers Order Intake. This may lead to volatility in the development of Order Intake of the company. The company has a policy of geographically diversifying its customer base, as also expanding the customer base in each export market, so that transfer to less volatile locations can be made in short notice. Price Competition in the local export market: The Company does business in very competitive local and export markets. In spite of the competition the company has a 70% market share in the local market and its export business is expanding.Both these local and export markets in which it competes are highly fragmented, with a few large, international manufacturers competing against each other and against a high number of smaller, local companies. Sometimes new entrants or existing players suddenly lower their prices to get rid of the companys products. This has, in some cases, adversely impacted sales margins realized by certain of companys products. To mitigate this risk the company has taken the following steps: Maintaining complete information of its Competitors with respect to their latest technological developments, market strategies, new investments, management changes etc. Has developed emergency alternative plans to introduce different product ranges with minimal structural changes with similar or lower prices. Currency fluctuation for export orders:The Company exports its products to a large number of countries like Canada, USA, Australia, African countries, and the Middle East. Almost all export orders of the company are fixed in US dollars. Since Omani Rail is pegged with US Dollars, the fluctuation of the currencies in would have negligible impact on the export realizations at company X. Company X has a policy of booking export orders in terms of US dollars to avoid the risk of currency fluctuations. Managing Operational Risks: Being a chocolate manufacturing company, it deals with the retail market. The most important risks are those of Operational risks. Operational risk is associated with human error, system failures and inadequate procedures and controls. It is the risk of loss arising from the potential that inadequate information system; technology failures, breaches in internal controls, fraud, unforeseen catastrophes, or other operational problems may result in unexpected losses or reputation problems. Fire Allied risks: These are general risks applicable to almost all establishments. This includes Material damage to the companys property due to Fire lightning, Earthquake, Third party impact, Accidental damage, explosion, riot strike, storm tempest, burst pipes, Own Vehicle impact, malicious damage, and theft. The company should take necessary steps in mitigating such risks by taking â€Å"Property All Risks Insurance Policy† â€Å"Loss of profit insurance cover† Machinery breakdown/ obsolescence: This risk identified is a major risk element as the company has been established two decades earlier by using imported refurbished Plant and machinery. Though most of the machinery is in running condition as of now the chances of spare part obsolescence is quite high in a majority of such machines. The physical status and the possible mitigation for major machinery can be shown in ANNEXTURE II Volatility of Raw Material/ Packing Material prices: The Company faces a medium level risk in its Raw material Packing material prices. The main raw materials at are Sugar, Glucose, Milk Powder, vegetable fat, coconut, coco whey powders. The packing material required is Wrappers, Bags, Gift boxes, Gift Tins and cartoons. Other than a few packing materials almost all of the raw materials and packing materials are imported as shown below Quality risk Raw material Packing material: This is a medium sized risk and the company should take reasonable care to mitigate such risks. Since the majority of the raw materials and packing materials are imported by the company, the purchase committee should implementing a stringent policy of Should have a multiple suppliers from the same country or region. Should have proper Quality checks for each Consignment while receiving delivery. Should have a stringent penalty clause on variation of specifications in the agreements with suppliers. Delivery risk of Suppliers: This is major risk element at the company because of the fact that in most cases purchases are imported and made through Letter of Credits. Non Delivery or delayed delivery in such purchases may affect the performance of the company. The company is implementing proper penalty clauses in the purchase agreement for delayed and/ or non-delivery of the ordered items. Transporting risks: In case of local sales, the company transports the products mostly through its own personnel. The company therefore, takes a general Transit Insurance policy covering accidents and theft. Inventory carrying risk: Inventory Carrying risks are of three types: Storage risk Overstocking under stocking risk Expiry risk Storage risk The storage policies currently are The company can keeps the entire inventory in closed warehouses. Over-stocking Under-stocking: The company can maintain a good optimized production planning system in correlation with its sales plan so that it can have a optimum stocking policy. The current production plan is quite satisfactory and hence the risk is low to medium. But the company is mostly dependent on Export market, the volatility of export orders may lead to overstocking or under-stocking of inventory. Expiry risks: This risk is low to medium. Expiry risks of inventory can be mitigated by proper planning of Sales, Purchase, Production and Distribution. The Storekeeper needs to maintain up-to-date records. A system is being implemented to provide on-line information about the stock position i.e. the quantity in stock, Re-order period, Ordering level and the Expiry dates of each of the Raw material, packing material and finished stocks to the Sales, Production and Purchase department so that immediate action can be taken by the respective departments. Manpower Availability risks: There is a shortage of skilled manpower in Oman. This is however met with the expatriate staff employed mainly from the sub-continent. The company therefore faces a medium risk in terms of availability of skilled manpower. The company can met unskilled manpower availability with the local Omani population and also from expatriate staff. The gap of skilled labor availability is likely to increase and therefore the costs also increase. To mitigate such risks, the company can develop long term strategy to invest in higher capacity production machines so that the requirement of manpower is kept low. Accidents: The Company can face a chance of accidents at the factory, however the accident risks at the company is low, as it does not deal with hazardous material and the production processes are not complex. However the company may face risks from mechanical or electrical installations which cant be entirely ruled out. So the company needs to take the following steps: By providing ELCB (Electric Leakage Circuit Breakers) in all electrical circuits and ACBs for the main transformers By providing Hot masks to the manpower Having a good machinery breakdown policy Constant monitoring of the gas line leakages The company needs have a Manpower Accidents and Injury Policy to cover the possibility of injury or death of manpower within the factory premises. Managing Reputation Risks Reputation of the company may also get hamper in various situations some of which are Contamination-hygiene: Being in the Food sector the company should take utmost precaution to avoid any sort of contamination in its products which will reach to the general mass. The company should take precaution for the quality of the raw material and packing material that is required for the entire production process and the stocking procedure. The company can follow the following policy: Stringent Quality control checks of Raw materials and packing materials Stringent Quality checks of the entire production process Maintaining Hygiene standards of the Government of Oman both in production and stocking. Sample testing at each stage Have a third Party damage policy insurance coverage owing to contamination Product expiry/Shelf life risks: This is again a very vital risk to the company as it is in the Food sector. The Government of Oman is very stringent in its laws to avoid expired products to be sold to the general public. So the company should take utmost care to avoid this risk by providing a stringent Distribution policy of its finished products Checks and controls before distribution of products. Monitoring distributed products on a daily basis Attributing Responsibility to a Senior Personnel for the management Corporate Governance: Corporate Governance Policies and Procedures manual are already in place at the company. Hence the risk associated with it is low. The management has to ensure proper compliance of the policies already undertaken to avoid any risk of reputation arising out of non-compliance of corporate governance. Managing Credit Risks: Credibility Risk of Customers: The Company should develop a credit policy based on regions, volume and credibility ranking of the parties. Export: The Company exports to a wide range of countries. The contacts of customers are mainly through visits and through mail. It is initially very difficult to assess the credibility of the customers abroad. The risk element is therefore medium and high. The company should mitigate this risk in the following manner: The company should back up the export orders by Letter of Credit from the parties. In case L/C mode is not practicable, the company can ask for advance payments or Security deposit, or post dated cheques which will cover the entire order taken prior to effecting delivery of the goods. The company currently did not enter into any distribution agreement with any export party and deals with parties on a case to case basis The Company can set up a network of distributors for handling exports sales as far as practicable. The company can also set up more than one distributor; in each region/country, so that price advantage can be achieved through minimal risk. The company should select distributors with proven track record, and the distributorship agreement should be through a internationally binding legal contract. Local: Local sales are affected by the company mainly to retail customers like supermarkets and hypermarkets, small shops and to two distributors in the interior. The company should take the following steps: Sale to all hypermarkets and supermarkets where the volumes are above a certain limit are, as far as possible, affected by means of an annual contract with all modalities and terms and conditions clearly laid out. For single shop outlets, the company may face the risk of shop closing down and non-payment or delayed payment. To counter this company should maintain small stocks with such shops and should have a regular but frequent collection system. In case of distributors the company should have legally binding distribution agreements. Limit setting: An important element of credit risk management is to establish exposure limits for each single customer and distributors. The compan